ATEL presents
Its 14th Annual ELT
Conference
United Color of Education
Saturday May 21st, 2011
Abstracts & PAPERS of Presentations/Workshops
PICTURES
https://picasaweb.google.com/atelebanon/14thELTConference?authkey=Gv1sRgCOTcrc6FlsqK4AE#
8:00 : Reception & Registration
9:00 : Opening Ceremony
9:05 : Honor Guest Speaker: HMA Francis Guy- British Ambassador to
9:10 : Mr. Michael Hajj – ATEL President -
9:15 : Mr. Fadi Yarak - General Director of the
Ministry of Education -
9:20 : Prof.
Zalpha Ayoubi - Dean of the Faculty of Education
at the
9:30 : Thank You Award Distribution
9:40 : Key Note Speaker 1: Martin Curtis –
Pearson
9:55 : Key
Note Speaker 2: Prof. John McRae - British Council
-
10:30 : Coffee
Break
11:00 - 14:00
: Parallel Presentations & Workshops
|
Abstracts & PAPERS |
|
AUDITORIUM 11l:00-12:00 : Professor
John McRae - British Council – Workshop: FIVE SKILLS ENGLISH Reading as empowerment in language learning 12:05-13:05 : Martin Curtis - Pearson Workshop: United Colours of Error Correction 13:10-13:40 : Dr. Mohammad
Al-Zu’bi - Albalqa
Applied University, Aman Presentation:
Using Mobile-based Email for EFL Learners |
|
ROOM 1 11:00-12:00
: Sue Magee – Teacher
Training Coordinator British
Council - Jordan Workshop: Music and Songs in the ELT Classroom 12:05-13:05 : James
Goodman – British
Council - Workshop
Making reading more learner-centred 13:10-13:40 : Edward Russell-
Member of ETAS (English Teachers Association of
Mini-Workshop:
Addressing the issue of discrimination and developing
intercultural communicative competence
|
|
ROOM 2 11:00-11:30 : William
DeGenaro - Presentation: Linking Exchange in the Writing Classroom 11:35-12:05: Tharwat
Dabaja- British Council -
Presentation: Incidental Vocabulary via Word Games 12:10-12:40 : Yvonne Stead Nasr - Director of Education, Presentation:
A Brief Introduction to the SAT® Reasoning Test, Detailing Appropriate who speak English with 2nd or 3rd
Language Fluency 12:45-13:15 : Dr. Sahar
Farouk Altikriti & Dr. Dima Alomari
- Al Isra University - Jordan Presentation: Communication
is a key: the role of teachers and students to achieve effective classroom
communication |
AUDITORIUM
Professor John McRae -
British Council –
Workshop: FIVE SKILLS ENGLISH
Reading as empowerment in language learning
Abstract
The “four skills” approach in language teaching and learning has been
found wanting: integration of the skills has had only limited success, and both
teachers and learners are looking for a way forward.
The fifth skill, developed
through the use of representational
language from the earliest stages of language learning, actively encourages the
cognitive processing skills and use of imagination which the system has until
now actively discouraged.
Critical reading, bringing together language awareness, text awareness and
cultural awareness, encourages the empowerment of readers in both
receptive skills and productive language skills, when the right enabling
language is used.
Target audience: Secondary
teachers & university/college professors
Paper
The four skills approach to communicative language teaching has been with us for a long time. It is not perfect, but in many ways it is seen as the best and most effective way of teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language.
Listening, speaking, reading and writing are taught as separate or integrated skills, and are tested in ways which allow for right and wrong answers, and grades which confirm a target level of achievement reached. It is usually possible to get 100% correct answers in most language tests.
This indicates that the testing system is predominantly closed, rather than open in its choices and variables. Progress in language learning is seen as measurable, quantifiable, in terms of language items, lexical items, structures etc. acquired, produced, recognised and manipulated.
As long ago as 1977 Jonathan Culler wrote:
Our examinations are not designed merely to check whether (a student) has read and remembered certain books but to test his or her progress as a reader of literature.
This statement was made in the context of the teaching of literature with a small “l”, and uses highly debatable terminology with regard to the subject of testing and evaluation. However, its basic thrust is very significant and merits reflection on the question of progress as a learner of language, and the abilities and skills that are required of language learners after the so-called communicative language teaching "revolution."
There is a distinction to be drawn between testing and evaluation of learners' progress. Testing suggests a closed system of right/wrong, evaluation a more open system.
In large part, the language system that is taught in the four skills approach focuses on referential language. This is language which means exactly what it says, where one word has one meaning, and where grammar and syntax follow the accepted rules. It is a rule-based approach, and usefully gives a basis for language use, a linguistic skeleton which learners can move on to fleshing out .
However, the four skills approach frequently ignores representational language. That is language which is open to interpretation, contains plurality of meaning potential rather than one single denotational meaning, and requires negotiation and judgement by its receiver in order to be fully understood.
No living language in the world can remain only at the referential level for very long. Every language in use is hugely representational, and perhaps no language more so than English.
Most communicative language teaching is based on an assumed idealised communicative situation where interlocutors say what they mean and mean what they say, and are received and understood as such. This is fine for communicative practice simulation. But, as the work of Deborah Tannen and others has shown this assumption is patently false in the world outside the classroom.
Recent work on corpora of spoken English goes a long way to confirming that language in use is rarely as prescriptive and definitive as the kind of language learned in a communicative methodology. English in use is hedged about with modality, with vague language, with hesitations and lack of commitment, whereas learners of English are encouraged to use definite verbs, assertion, affirmation.
It is this that leads to the necessity for a fifth skill to be incorporated into the currently widespread four skills communicative approach to language teaching and learning.
The fifth skill is the skill of processing and thinking. Any text spoken, written, or heard has to be processed and thought about in order that its implications be decoded, its frame of reference understood, its context and connotations assimilated, its ideological standpoints assessed, where it is coming from and who it is directed at, all being incorporated into the overall understanding.
Comprehension is widely perceived, especially by learners, as the ultimate aim, the point of arrival, the main target of learning achievement. This is a misapprehension both of how language works and of what language acquisition and proficiency are all about.
Where the four skills approach has tended to focus on comprehension as a testable aim, the five skills approach sees comprehension as a starting-point, the point zero in the processing of the text, whether it be spoken or written .
Five skills offers a process-based rather than a product-based approach. Experience of the language and how it works is frequently seen as more significant than information. Of course, information transfer on a purely referential level is vitally important in many fields of communication and language use. But it is limited in its applications to specialised areas of, particularly, professional language use.
Referential texts and representationality
Even a text which purports to be referential , such as a dictionary entry , lends itself to fruitful processing. The following text is, as the graphology shows, a dictionary entry:
Beans on toast
is a popular snack, eaten at any time of the day.
Heinz, the most popular brand of baked beans, originally canned beans in tomato
sauce in 1895, and when they were imported into
See Snack.
What students can be invited to see in this text is some sort of ideological construct: who is writing and to whom becomes a highly useful question. The apparatus would concentrate on where the text's frame of reference covers (it is wholly British- centred) , how much information is given for anyone who knows nothing about the subject (colour, size and type of beans are not mentioned, toast is never mentioned). Frequently, students read this as a veiled advertisement for Heinz, as it seems to stress the brand name more than might seem necessary. Questions such as "who is everyone?" also reveal something about the assumptions the text (and possibly its producer) make. The fact that at current supermarket prices in the UK Heinz beans cost three times the price of a supermarket's own economy brand might give another insight to the question .
Contrasting that text with a genuine advertising slogan for the same company illuminates useful differences in graphology, syntax, semantics and function :
BEANZ MEANZ HEINZ
Students need encouragement to "see through language" in this way, but as soon as they realise that it is fruitful and indeed fun, they take to it rapidly and can be encouraged to read any text, from newspapers to text-books, from the non-literary text through any kind of literature (with a small ‘l’ or a large ‘L’) with a healthy questioning attitude. With well-written texts this will of course lead to a greater appreciation of the text's qualities and the effects it achieves.
The development of the fifth skill, and the acquisition of processing skills, involves a refining of three levels of awareness in cognitive terms:
language
awareness
text awareness
cultural
awareness
The fifth skill is in itself nothing new: it effectively embodies the three ways of learning language outlined by Halliday when he suggested that a three‑part structure is needed for discussions of language learning:
learning language
learning through
language
learning about
language
The most innovative recent textbooks and the best practice over recent years have implicitly been incorporating materials which require interpretation skills. and which expand cultural awareness as well as developing the basic language skills.
What is to be learned is twofold: the mechanisms of the syntax of the target language are a more or less closed system, with not too many variables, a system of syntax which has more or less clear rules of use and usage. Then there is the much more open
system of lexis and register, which necessarily involves choice on the part of the producer of the language and a capacity to evaluate and respond to that series of choices on the part of the receiver .
The factors which condition such choices are of course manifold: they
are social, cultural, linguistic, ideological, historical, local, personal,
affective, and can indeed be as idiosyncratic as the individual speaker.
Communicative language teaching and learning have, almost by necessity, avoided
too much consideration of these factors, in a justifiable attempt to streamline
the learning to what is quantifiable, and can be standardised.
At various times there have been debates on linguistic competence, fluency versus accuracy, the differences between written and spoken English. and the vexed question of standard and non-standard English. These will no doubt continue. Their relevance to the present discussion is considerable.
The new element which Five Skills English brings to bear on these debates is the concentration on how the language works rather than what it says: on how it means rather than simply on what it means.
Against reading comprehension
I once had a class tackle a First Certificate in English (FCE) Reading
Comprehension, but made the mistake of omitting to give them the passage to
read: they only had the questions.
They all passed.
Replicating this mistake deliberately for research purposes in several teaching contexts, I found that the results more or less replicated themselves: no-one got 100% correct answers. But with the application of a little intelligence, a process of elimination and some guess-work it was easy for a pass level to be achieved. This suggested to me that Reading Comprehension in that particular form was effectively testing neither reading nor comprehension. What students had learned to do was apply some mechanical techniques to a testing situation in order to get a satisfactory result.
Of course. this is anecdotal rather than scientific evidence and I use it only to describe a seminal classroom experience. But is often from our mistakes and failures that we gain our most useful insights.
The question that arises is, simply, how valuable is comprehension in and of itself?
How much is reading comprehension applicable to a text such as this one, a text which has been widely used in representational language teaching textbooks:
40 – LOVE
40
-- love
middle aged
couple playing
ten
when the
game ends
and they
go home
the net
will still
be be
tween them
.
It is almost impossible to consider this text in the usual classroom context of comprehension. Rather, it requires processing. The "traditional" question "what is it about?" might not be as fatuous as it may seem. Answers could cover a range of ideas, from tennis to relationships, from marriage to graphology. The point would emerge, however, that the text is not only about one thing: it is as much about the themes that might arise from discussion as it is about the text itself, its layout and its form reflecting the nature of the subject-matter and content. It will be about different things for different people. A fifteen-year-old will react differently from a forty-year-old. As with most representational texts, it is difficult to be prescriptive about there being one correct answer.
Apparatus
The kind of apparatus used in working with a text like 40 - Love could involve questions as above, and such textual intervention strategies as rewriting: if the text is rewritten in sentence form it loses much of its impact, and indeed its meaning.
This is a useful confirmation of the importance of how a text means going beyond what it means.
Similarly the effect or function of the texts can be explored by inviting students to discuss appropriate adjectives to describe the text and it impact - the following might be suggested "sad, witty, clever, amusing, disconcerting,” or, “not really poetry." Of course readers may opt for others, for more than one of these, and may even dislike and react against the text .
Another aspect of the text which might attract learner interest may be the etymology of the word "love" meaning zero in a tennis score: it comes from the French l 'oeuf since it would appear that tennis was originally scored with a kind of abacus with egg-shaped balls, one of which represented the score of zero. (Of course the reason might simply be that one of the balls was egg-shaped!)
It is also worth asking students what lines
appeal to them most: "be be"
is often chosen, partly because of the surprise dividing of the word
"between" ; "ten
Open texts
The virtue of a text like this in the communicative language teaching context lies precisely in its openness, in the text's demand on its readers that it be processed on its own merits, with the reader bringing to the text shared knowledge, familiarity/unfamiliarity with culture, context, and subject-matter, language awareness, text awareness and cultural awareness. How the reader reacts depends on individual response rather than on the precise correctness of an expected answer.
Even the word "love" is called
into question, which is useful if the learner knows only one meaning of the
word. The source of the meaning of "zero" as illustrated above might
also be part of the learning aims of work with this text. Learning about
language thus becomes part and parcel of learning the language itself. This particular poem is of course the kind of text which most easily exemplifies the teachability of representational texts, which is perhaps why it is so widely used in representational textbooks.
But many students would find themselves in difficulty if asked to respond to such a text, because they have not been trained to produce such openness of response, and lack the confidence to respond .
However, any text requires processing in not dissimilar ways. Most texts do not have one single meaning: they require some kind of processing, whether they be information or opinion, prescriptive or descriptive, fiction or fact, newspaper or recipe book. And learners have to be enabled to develop response strategies to the ever-expanding range of open texts the modern world presents them with: from advertisements to political speeches, from newspaper articles to song lyrics, from tourist brochures to comics, the representationality of the language used demands a capacity for processing, evaluating and responding to that language.
Enabling language
The enabling language which students require in order to be able to discuss the processing they carry out with texts is the language of modality, of "might" and "may", of opinion and possibility, rather than certainty and right/wrong answers.
Of course it can be unsettling for learners to be deprived of the security blanket of there being a right or a wrong answer - but moving beyond that restricted referential level is a vital step forward in progress as a language learner. The analogy is of a driver learning to drive and never moving out of first gear .
Until recently the jump from referential language learning to an awareness of representationality in the language teaching context has been left to a late stage in the proceedings, if it has been faced at all.
Teachers have to begin the awareness raising process as early as possible in the language learning career of the student: left too late, bridging that gap becomes progressively more difficult. If representational materials are introduced from the very earliest stages of language learning, the learner's imagination is called into play, there is an awareness that judgement and response are part of language development, and a confidence is built that the learner does have something worth saying, something to bring to the text, some personal contribution to offer, rather than simply being at the mercy of the materials and the teaching of an unknown subject.
Around the world now, in the context of language-teaching textbook research and writing, several areas have already emerged where process-based methodology can be applied. These include:
- materials selection: where texts come from, when they were written;
- are they examples of current English? Spoken or written, or a mix of registers?
- are they British, American or another local English?
- techniques of reading such as the finding of binaries and opposites, following
through of verb tenses to find the movement of the text, individual cohesive features which create phoric flow, etc.
- if translation is used. how does the text translate into the learner’s own current language, or back from that language into current English? Contrastive language awareness of how both languages work is fundamental to process-based methodology.
- continuous variation of question-types is necessary: from lower-order to higher-order questions, and with as much variation in question-types as possible, according to the requirements of the individual text .
- formulation of questions for open response rather than pre-determined correct
answers.
- perceptions of interpretation, ideology and “spin” contained within the text
- implicatures and cultural assumptions
- evaluation of lexical choice, rather than an emphasis on vocabulary acquisition -consideration of how frequently usable a new lexical item might be, for example.
- learner awareness of teaching/learning outcomes
- the text-book as a starting-point rather than an end-point in the learning process
- the importance of graphology, layout and visual stimuli as part of the process of
meaning creation and response
- the question of thoroughness versus flexibility, standardisation versus
individuality
- the evaluation of appropriateness of response: best answers rather than single possible right answer
- the contextualisation of closed and open choices.
Clearly all these areas merit considerable reflection and research, and there will be many more which will emerge as work on Five Skills methodology expands. All four currently recognised skills will require separate work on process-based approaches, and a priority will be the testing and evaluation system. with its current inflexible approach to correctness of response.
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES
The texts: the Beans on toast entry is from Nation 1991; 40-Love by Roger McGough is in McRae and Pantaleoni, 1990.
Andrews, Stephen, Teaching Language Awareness, CUP, 2007
Arnold, Jane, Affect in Language Teaching,
Cameron, Lynne and Graham Low. Researching and Applying Metaphor,
Carrell, Patricia, Devine Joanne, and David Eskey, Interactive Approaches to Second Language
Carter, Ronald, Language and Creativity,
Carter, Ronald, Investigating English Discourse,
Carter, Ronald, and Michael Long. Teaching Literature,
Carter, Ronald, and Michael McCarthy, Exploring Spoken English,
Carter, Ronald, and
Carter, Ronald, and Walter Nash, Seeing Through Language,
Crystal, David, English as a Global Language.
Culler, Jonathan, “Structuralism and
Literature” in Hilda Schiff, ed., Contemporary Approaches to English
Studies,
Graddol, David, The Future of English?,
Hall, Geoff, Literature in Language Education,
Halliday, Michael, Language as Social Semiotic,
Hasan, Ruqaiya. Linguistics, language, and verbal art,
McRae, John, Literature with a small ‘l’,
McRae, John, The Language of Poetry,
McRae, John and Luisa Pantaleoni. Chapter and Verse: an interactive approach to literature .Oxford, OUP, 1990
McRae, John and
Nation, Michael, A
Dictionary of Modern
Nattinger, James R., and Jeanette S. De
Carrico, Lexical Phrases and Language
Teaching,
Pope,
Rob, Textual
Intervention,
Simpson, Paul, Language, Ideology and Point of View,
Simpson, Paul, Language through Literature: an introduction,
Stockwell, Peter, Cognitive Poetics,
Tannen, Deborah. Talking Voices,
Van Lier, Leo, Introducing Language
Awareness,
Martin Curtis - Pearson
Workshop: United
Colours of Error Correction
Abstract
Have you ever wondered how written errors
affect a student’s development and motivation? How does teacher-led correction
hinder their progress? How does this correcting on the part of the teacher
affect a learner’s editing skills?
How can you address learner errors in a positive and meaningful way and
encourage class collaboration? How can teachers facilitate rather than merely
lead this?
This workshop will present a number of colourful methods in which errors can be
identified and exploited to enhance a learner’s language development. Colour
coded error highlighting can be much less negative & helps practice the
skills of self-correction and peer-work. Just as importantly, it also gives the teacher
clearly visible pointers on the language areas which need to be addressed by
the individual learner and/or the group.
In this highly interactive and engaging workshop, the teachers will take part
in several activities which will reflect the usefulness of this approach:
• Correction agendas
• Kinaesthetic editing activities
• Competitions with corrections
• Writing up student reports and grades
• Workbook correction
Paper
Workshop:
Dr. Mohammad Al-Zu’bi - Albalqa Applied University, Aman
Presentation: Using Mobile-based Email for EFL Learners
Abstract (Did NOT attend)
This study aimed at
investigating the role of using electronic mail and mobile phone in improving
Ajloun College English Students' Achievement, It attempted to answer the
following questions:
1. What is the role of mobile phone and electronic mail in improving English skills?
2. What is the role of electronic mail in improving English skills?
3. What is the effect of mobile phone and electronic mail on attitudes of the students towards English compared with conventional method?
To answer the questions of the study, the researcher prepared a project based on mobile phone and electronic mail for the experimental groups. 120 female students in were purposefully chosen from Ajloun College- English Department in the first semester of the academic year 2011. The participants of the study consisted of three assigned sections. The experimental groups were taught according to mobile phone and electronic mail; while the control group was taught according to the conventional way. The three groups were found equivalent upon analyzing the data in the pre-achievement test. Two instruments were used in this study, namely, a test and a survey. Finding from survey and test revealed some positive responses and negative ones. On the basis of the results of the present study, the researcher proposed a number of recommendations and suggestions for future research.
Target audience: Teachers of English & postgraduate students specialized in English methodology
ROOM 1
Sue
Magee – Teacher Training
Coordinator
British Council - Jordan
Workshop: Music and Songs in the ELT Classroom
Abstract
Music can play a really important part in the language classroom but how and why do you use music in your classroom?
In this workshop we will discuss briefly why using music and songs is beneficial for learners of all ages and what we need to consider when choosing music and songs to use in the classroom.
Music in the classroom doesn’t always mean listening to a song and using the lyrics in some way. It can be used in a multitude of ways. We will do some activities with music and songs other than the traditional gap fill and multiple choice ones; for example, as a springboard for speaking and writing activities.
Aims:
By the end of the workshop, teachers will have
· Discussed briefly
a) the positive (and possible negative) effects of using music in the language classroom and
b) what factors to take into consideration when choosing which music to use
· Practised some classroom activities which use music in a variety of ways
Target audience: This workshop is aimed at teachers of teenagers and adults.
PAPER
James Goodman
– British Council -
Workshop Making reading more learner-centred
Abstract
What is reading? How and why do we read? For those interested in promoting reading in their classrooms, these are important questions. In this workshop we will find some answers and consider how they might impact upon our teaching.
We will start by considering some 'traditional' approaches and methodologies and then evaluate them against our beliefs about reading as a skill. It is interesting to notice significant gaps between reading as it is sometimes done in the classroom and as it is done in 'real' situations.
We will finish by considering some ways in which materials can be adapted in order to be more learner-centred and to more closely resemble situations in which learners read outside of the classroom context.
Aims:
By the end of the workshop, we will have:
l Considered reading
as a process
l Evaluated the
effectiveness of 'traditional' approaches to reading in ELT
l Thought about ways
in which reading in the ELT classroom can be made to closer mirror the reading
process
Target audience: This workshop is aimed at teachers of teenagers and adults.
PAPER
Introduction
Two factors have informed my decision to focus on reading skills in this paper. Firstly,
I have noticed that many learners find
reading a particularly difficult skill, a result I feel, of an overemphasis on
reading as the process of decoding individual words at the expense of overall
meaning. Secondly, the majority of English learners I have worked with in
I will start by providing a brief summary of the reading process. I will then go on to discuss difficulties students have with the reading process and finally suggest some teaching strategies that can help overcome these.
Current thinking in the field of English language teaching (ELT) suggests that reading is not simply extracting words from a page but rather an interactive process (e.g. Grabe 1991, Nuttall 2005). Readers are not simply sponges that absorb information from a page but rather are actively involved, evaluating, assessing and judging the information they are receiving. For example, as a teacher of ELT, I approach an article on teaching methodology with prior ideas about how language is effectively taught. Reading the article, I may find some of the ideas discussed are familiar to me, in which case I would likely read through these points quickly just to confirm my previous knowledge. However, when I come across a new idea I am likely to change different strategies, slowing down and taking the time to focus on words and structures to ensure I correctly understand what is being communicated.
These two strategies are commonly referred to as top-down and bottom-up strategies. I will now briefly discuss these two processes and illustrate how they operate.
Top-down processing
“Top-down processing refers to the use of background knowledge in understanding the meaning of a message.” (Richards 1990: 51) This knowledge comes from context or situation. For example, noticing an article on the front page of a newspaper entitled ‘Clegg on the offensive over cuts’, I activate schematic knowledge, or “the mental frameworks we hold in our memories for certain topics.” (Hedge 2000: 232)
Content schemata
Content schemata is ‘prior knowledge of text-related information’ (Grabe
1991: 381). Sources range from: knowledge of the writer; knowledge of the
world; cultural knowledge; word association.
‘Clegg on the offensive over cuts’ suggests:
|
|
Content schema |
Assumption |
|
Knowledge of the writer |
This source is usually fair. |
Unbiased. |
|
Knowledge of the world |
Clegg is a politician. |
Political text |
|
Cultural knowledge |
The |
Leaders are criticised and justify
themselves. |
|
Word association |
Clegg / cuts |
economy / budget / reduce |
Schematic knowledge prepares the readers for
typical content. The cognitive burden is reduced as the content is already
known.
In other situations, we might have an even clearer idea of what to expect. When shutting down a computer, one expects the prompt:
What do you want the computer to do?
Are you sure?
Repeated exposure to these prompts almost eliminates the need for reading.
Formal schemata
Cook explains, a ‘schema is a mental representation of a typical
instance’ (1997). In addition to content, readers approach text expecting
conventions of organisation and language - a formal schemata.
The newspaper reader expect articles to adhere to newspaper conventions.
Beginning with a summary of an event (a speech by Clegg) then recounting
background information (the government's planned cuts), then story development
(criticisms levelled at the cuts) and rebuke. The formal schema dictates this
organisation and knowledge of it determines which parts a reader pays closer
attention to. Thus, the formal schemata allows the reader to scan quickly and
economically to access specific information.
Text structure, a component of formal schemata, aids recall. Readers
mirror the structure of a text when recalling. Grabe points out that ‘logical
patterns of organization … improve recall compared to texts organised loosely
around a collection of facts.’ (1991: 381)
In summary, schematic knowledge:
l
removes need to process every word.
l
reduces amount of information to be extracted
l
helps select information to be extracted
l
focuses on comparison between expectations
and content rather than the entire content.
l
makes up for gaps in the message caused by
poor writing or lack of systems skills
Evaluation of
information
Grabe (1991: 381) states that ‘fluent readers not only seek to
comprehend a text when they read, they also evaluate the text information and
compare/synthesise it with other sources of information/knowledge’. Schematic
knowledge provides a basis from which to evaluate a text. It allows the reader
to anticipate text development and to assess the strength of the piece.
For example, when I read the headline ‘Jail for 150kph Killer’ in a
newspaper, I use my schematic knowledge to inform these assumptions of the
text:
- Formal schematic knowledge informs expectations of the genre. As it
is in a newspaper, the text should be informative, factual and free from
bias.
- Content schematic knowledge predicts likely content: ‘Somebody
driving too fast (150kph) has hit another person killing them. As a
result, the driver is going to go to jail.'
- The text is read and assessed in relation to these predictions. So
did I accurately predict the content? Does the article provide the details
that I expect it to (e.g. details of the killer, the victim, the crime,
the length of the jail sentence)?
Evaluation of information allows the reader take a position vis-à-vis
the author’s intention and decide on the value of the information presented. In
this way, the reader is an active participant in the reading process.
Bottom-up processing
Bottom-up processing requires readers to ‘use information … to try to comprehend the meaning.’(Hedge 2000: 230) A reader relies on knowledge of language systems to extract meaning from a text.
l
Automatic recognition skills
Fluent readers read quickly and efficiently because they process
vocabulary and grammatical structures automatically, without having to break
either words or structures into individual components.
E.g.
Dial 0 for an outside line.
Automatically, I access lexical meaning without analysis of letters,
syllables, prefixes or suffixes and recognise the grammatical structure as
typical of instruction.
l
Recognition of vocabulary and
grammatical knowledge
Grabe (1991: 380) suggests that fluent readers recognise between 10,000
and 100,000 words. Readers have to make associations between the written word
and concepts refered to. Fluent readers can ascertain meaning carried by
grammatical structures.
E.g.
The lion was eaten by the man.
Firstly, I associate the words (man, eat, lion) with their referents.
Secondly, I recognise ‘be + past participle + by’ as passive and therefore
deduce subject and object.
l
Inferring meaning
Fluent readers decode meaning through knowledge of vocabulary and grammar.
E.g.
Language experts say Thompson's rant was an attack on
“teenspeak,” which has developed through text messaging and social
networking sites.
Readers deduce that 'teenspeak' is:
-
in the position of a noun
-
comprised of two parts: teen +
speak
-
develops through text
messaging and social networking
Using this information, the reader guesses at a likely definition (e.g.
language used by teenagers). This definition alters as the reader acquires
further examples of the word and its uses.
Dealing with different text types
Different strategies are used when reading different types of text.
‘Simply stated, reading involves both an array of lower-level rapid, automatic
identification skills and an array of higher-level comprehension/interpretation
skills’ (Grabe 1991: 383). Contextual information (top-down) informs the
readers expectations of text and dominates until prediction process fails.
Here, perceptual information (bottom-up) extracted from the text adjusts
expectations and informs the next stage of the prediction process.
So, there is a greater reliance on top-down techniques when the subject
is familiar or the reader is interested primarily in the main idea of a text.
For example, casually browsing a newspaper, a reader would rely on top-down
skills, read quickly to extract main ideas rather than details. In contrast,
when reading an article on the pros and cons of nuclear power, my schematic
knowledge is limited so top-down strategies quickly fail and I resort to
bottom-up techniques to understand the message.
Learner problems and solutions
In this section, I am going to highlight some common
problems that I have found learners have with reading and suggest some possible
ways to help learners overcome these difficulties.
Top-down strategies
Not predicting
A common problem I have found amongst
learners is when given a reading, their first
response is to go straight into the text without considering issues such
as the purpose or the type of text they are reading. This suggests learners see
reading as primarily about bottom-up skills. Raising learners awareness of the
need to employ top-down strategies will improve their reading skills. Two ways
in which I have done this with learners are:
a) Before giving learners the text, give them contextual clues (such as
headlines, pictures or key words). Then, encourage learners in groups to
discuss and predict likely content of the text. Following Harmer's suggestion
(2007: 289), I selected five words or phrases that I considered key to the text
(amputee, death, on top of the world, make history). Then I asked learners
individually to consider likely content. Next they discussed their ideas in
groups while I monitored and fed in vocabulary as required. Finally, I gave
learners the text and asked them to read quickly to ascertain who had predicted
most accurately.
b) An alternative way is to first give learners a stimulus, for example a
headline (Amputee makes history on top of the world) or first paragraph.
Next, learners write a list of questions that they like the text to answer.
Who
was the amputee?
How
did he 'make history'?
Was
it on a mountain?
Then,
learners read the article to see if they can answer their questions.
These exercises:
l
Arouse student interest
l
Build content schemata and
therefore increases reading efficiency
l
Encourage learners to vocalise
the process of predicting
l
Encourage students to define
their own purpose for reading, which mirrors ‘real’ reading
Insufficient content schemata
I find for certain topics students lack
background knowledge or vocabulary to understand a text. Recently I used a text
about British pop history, my Lebanese learners found it particularly
challenging as they weren't familiar with either artist or music genres.
Consequently, most of the reading I had allocated for reading was spent asking
about these concepts rather reading. As teachers, we can help learners in this
area by working on schematic knowledge before asking them to read.
l
Some ways to develop students' content
schemata:
In a lesson prior to the reading lessons,
together with my learners we selected a topic that had been in the news
recently – they chose a particularly violent local crime. As homework, I asked
the learners to research the topic in their own language. As a result, learners
already had the necessary content schemata which freed up their cognitive
resources and allowed a focus on reading skills.
Another effective way is to assess what
vocabulary and structures that are essential to a text and to pre-teach or
revise these prior to asking learners to read.
Finally, holding a mini-discussion on the
topic before reading will enable the teacher to assess what learners already
know and what they need to be taught before reading. So for example if the
article is about David Beckham, learners can start by discussing the topic of
football. The teacher can introduce vocabulary as is necessary.
Having used one of these techniques prior to
reading, it is useful to ask learners how useful it was to do so. This will
contribute to learners' awareness of the importance of content schemata and
encourage them to bring their prior knowledge to further texts in the future.
These exercises:
l
compensate for a lack of content knowledge,
reducing the cognitive burden
l
raises awareness of the usefulness of
content schemata
Insufficient formal schemata
A lack of exposure to different text types
(no reading habit) or differences in the way L1 organises text is problematic
for learners. An academic essay in English often summarises the conclusion in
the introduction, by contrast, academic French usually does not conclude until
the end.
Difficulties learner's have as a result are:
- scanning for information which is not
where learners expect it
- using text structure to organise
information when recalling it
To raise students'
awareness of formal schemata, it is necessary for them to examine many
different text types and to be encouraged to consider how they are typically
organised. I use the
following procedure:
l
Learners are given examples of
a text type (e.g. an academic essay supporting the use of nuclear weapons and
another against their use). Following work on content and the ideas posited in
the text, students look at the text in terms of organisation. I tell learners
that the essays are organised according to function (e.g. stating a position;
presenting an argument; giving evidence; concluding). I then ask them to find
each of these functional parts in the two essays. Following this, a good way to
consolidate the knowledge gained would be to give learners a similar essay and
a task that requires them to scan for specific information. A strict time limit
will encourage learners to making use of their new knowledge of text structure
rather than reading the whole text in detail.
This exercise:
l
raises awareness of formal schemata
l
encourages students to critic the written
word (see issue: 'The status of text in L1') through presenting opposing views
Not considering text type and purpose
Learners who do not consider purpose, writer
and audience have difficulty evaluating. Once again, I think this problem stems
from the tendency to 'dive straight in' without employing top-down strategies.
l
Scott et al. (1984) suggest a set of general
comprehension questions to focus on purpose. These are:
1) What is the text about?
2) Who was it written by?
3) Who was it written for?
4) What is the writer’s intention?
5) Do you like the text?
By
highlighting the purpose, these questions facilitate discussion about the
relationship between author and reader and allows space for critical analysis.
For example being aware that an article on the merits of different political
parties was written by a party spin doctor encourages a critical approach.
This exercise:
l
focuses attention on general meaning
l
encourages students to see reading as
interaction between writer and reader
l
encourages students to consider the role of
the writer and critically evaluate it
The status of text in L1
Grabe states 'the social context of
students' uses of reading in their first languages ... may have a profound
effect on their abilities to develop academic reading skills in English. (Grabe
1991: 389) In many languages, formal writing is a complicated skill and
something that not everyone is able to do well. When the written word is highly
respected, the concept of evaluating or questioning a written text might be
alien to learners. Learners need to be encouraged to approach text critically.
l
In order to evaluate learners firstly need
to consider schematic knowledge. They can then use content and formal schematic
knowledge to prepare questions they expect the text to answer.
l
For example, in an essay addressing global
warming:
■
Does it give causes of global warming?
■
Does it give solutions?
■
Are the solutions linked to the causes?
These questions
should be used to evaluate the text. Learners read to find out if the text
answers their questions. If the text
does not address all of their questions, learners can either criticise the text
as deficient or alternatively reassess their own schematic knowledge, which further
develops formal schemata.
This exercise:
l
provides opportunities for learners to
predict
l
provides a learner-generated standard to
evaluate a text by
l
develops formal schemata
Bottom-up
Deficiency of systems knowledge
I find learners often run up against the
'brick wall' of an unknown word. Encountering such a word, the easiest option
for learners is to ask the teacher or revert to a dictionary. However to many
interruptions can impede fluid reading and distracts from general
comprehension.
l
Nuttall (2005: 72-76) suggests a three stage
program to develop inferencing skills.
1. To highlight how inferencing works, the teacher display sentences and
asks what can be inferred:
1. Turn the **** off.
Inference: ****
can be turned off
2. Put **** on silent.
**** can be put
on silent.
3. Answer the ****.
**** can be
answered.
2. To practise, students are given a longer text with some words blanked
out, they have to choose the most suitable word from a series of options.
E.g. I never
go out without my **** in case someone needs to call me.
a.
cigarettes b. wallet c. mobile d. glasses
3. With longer texts, inference is an alternative to pre-teaching
vocabulary. However, there must be enough evidence in the text to make
inference possible.
Importantly,
both learners and teacher should vocalise thought processes throughout to
develop inferencing skills.
Once the skill has been cultivated, students
gain an invaluable tool for dealing with new vocabulary, speeding up reading,
developing vocabulary and allowing focus on general comprehension.
Underdeveloped automaticity skills
Readers unable to quickly recognise large
amounts of vocabulary in a text cannot read it quickly. If learners have to
spend a lot of mental energy in order to extract meaning from individual
vocabulary items, then general comprehension suffers.
l
A program of speed reading develops learners
automaticity recognition ability. Nuttall (2005: 54) suggests students are
assessed. They are timed reading a text,
then complete some comprehension questions.
The word per minute reading rate and comprehension score is recorded.
This process should be repeated over the duration of a course. Nuttall suggests
'an average increase is about 50 per cent.' (2005: 56)
l
Development of automaticity requires repeat
exposure. Readers need to read as much as possible. Nuttall suggests (2005:
128) extensive reading of text enjoyable to the student. The texts should be of
a level that is relatively easily understood so as to promote speed and
enjoyment. I encourage learners to read about topics of interests in English, a
huge variety of material is available online.
Development of automaticity skills takes
time. Plentiful exposure is the only
solution. Extensive reading develops vocabulary and accustoms readers to the
written word, speed reading pushes the reader to read faster.
Conclusion
In this essay I have suggested that good
readers are those capable of employing both top-down and bottom-up strategies
when approaching reading texts. As teachers, we should helping our learners to
replicate these strategies in order to be better readers.
Bibliography
Cook G., 1997, Key
concepts in ELT – Schemas, ELT Journal 51/1
Grabe W., 1991, Current
developments in second language reading research, TESOL Quarterly 25/3
Harmer J.,
2007, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman
Hedge T., 2000, Teaching
and Learning in the Language Classroom, OUP
Nuttall C., 2005, Teaching
Richards J. C.,
1990, The language teaching matrix, CUP
Scott M.,
Edward Russell- Member of ETAS (English Teachers Association of
Mini-Workshop: Addressing the issue of discrimination and developing
intercultural
communicative
competence
Abstract
As part of a recently completed MA module Language Education as Intercultural Practice I wrote an assignment critiquing materials I had created in response to discrimination against Roma Bulgarians in a former context. The materials were written to complement a media and diversity video collection produced by the British Council.
The workshop looks to cover similar ground I covered over a 4 year period in my professional development, making moves from those of a well-intentioned novice,to those of a more informed and aware practitioner.
In this workshop I introduce the context and video before teachers come up with classroom solutions to a problem. After I have introduce Dr Milton Bennett's DMIS, teachers should be better informed and will review and improve their activity ideas and lesson plans. We will then debrief using participant ideas as the basis for a discussion on how I approached this puzzle. Finally, after the session we can keep in touch online sharing ideas, practice and suggestions.
PAPER
In this paper I will evaluate a
set of language learning materials I created
to accompany a British Council Media and Diversity video on the topic of
discrimination against Roma. This web page gives an overview of the project http://www.britishcouncil.org/bulgaria-projects-media-diversity-main-activities.htm and the material
can be found in the Appendices.
Media and Diversity Video
Project - Critiquing Self-made Material
Introduction
In this paper I apply my
understandings of language education as intercultural practice to a set of
material I produced prior to my exploration of the relevant literature. The
language learning lesson plan and activities link to a Media and Diversity
video project produced by the British Council Bulgaria in 2008. In this paper I
will critique the lesson materials using a variety of conceptual frameworks but
focusing on Bennett's (1993) Developmental Model for Intercultural
Sensitivity (DMIS);I believe that this framework and the relevant literature
may lead to insights into how to improve this material and its approach to such
controversial issues in the future.
Issue
Though I was a well-intentioned
novice in the production of intercultural communication training (ICT)
materials, the offence and shock caused to newly arrived teachers, like myself,
seemed to warrant an attempt to enable my students to communicate in a manner,
more becoming of 21st century EU citizens. In doing so, I
also intended on improving the quality of their discourse with interlocutors
from other EU states (including me). However, while trialling and training
colleagues in using the material, I realised, from the mixed reaction of
students and colleagues, that there was a certain amount of trepidation about
covering such subject matter. For teachers, there was a sense that: (a) the
material only dealt with surface level discrimination; (b) the material dealt
with issues they were untrained for and unwilling to tackle; and (c) the
material was patronizing to the students and possibly represented the British
imposing superficial political correctness or worse, a way of thinking on
Bulgarians. Students' early feedback suggested there was a sense that students
had not expected this kind of topic to feature in a language course, despite
understanding the organisation's remit.
Context Description
From 2007-2010 I worked for the
British Council Bulgaria, in the capital city
Media and Diversity Teaching
Material pack
The Media and Diversity Project was being
implemented to improve media representations of minority groups and I
volunteered to research, source and make some language learning material that
could complement the project and enable the videos to be used in the language
classroom. The pack was developed based on instinct, borrowing and limited
input from colleagues and support from the
teaching English website which featured Tomalin (2008) as a guest blogger.
The lesson I developed was based around a socio-linguistic aim, hedging to
soften the message, that was at the time familiar to my sense of plausibility
as a language teacher. Focusing on hedging I hoped to encourage my learners to
sound less direct when talking about the Roma minority in
In part 1 (stages 1,2&3) of
the lesson I sought to have students empathise by looking at things not from
an ethnic but economic, perspective and a discussion of the
poverty trap. With this I hoped to raise awareness of alternative attributions
to the accepted racist ones explaining Roma's economic position. Secondly the
focus was moved to make students acknowledge their lack of personal
relationships with Bulgarian-Roma at school or work, and then on to the lack of
positive Roma figures in the Bulgarian media. Here I was making the same point
as Naydenova (2010): “Why is it that when a Roma commits a crime he is labelled only
as a Roma but when he wins a European boxing championship, like Boris Georgiev,
he is labelled as simply Bulgarian?”. In stages 5 and 6 the focus moves to more
traditional language teaching territory where hedging language is introduced
and practised.
Decade of Roma inclusion
2005-2015 is the decade for
Roma inclusion and the long history of persecution of Roma is well documented.
However, to approach 'Roma' as my topic, a people so diverse, applying a large
culture label seems wrong. They are 5-10% of the population of Bulgarian but
more than 5-10 million people worldwide. As a cultural group Roma are far from homogeneous, there are many
subgroups that make up the 'Roma'
community who differentiate culturally and linguistically from each other.
It is a personal decision of
how to self-refer, however, the terms gypsy, tzigane and Roma are all used
within various parts of the large and diverse community for self-description.
Using these terms, as a non-roma, needs to be done with caution. One can
compare the potential use of these terms to the 'N-word', for black Americans,
the 'Y-word' for British Jews, or the 'G-word' for homosexuals, and how groups
who have suffered from discrimination take ownership of and re-brand the
hateful language used against them diffusing its power as an insult.
As I mentioned, it is the
decade of Roma inclusion, and I am not Roma. My being a white, heterosexual,
British man and the fact that this project does not involve or have participation from Bulgarian Roma is a key weakness of this
project. My approach is well intentioned but not participatory and thus weak in
it's relationship to the Roma community and this weakens the potential impact
on my students. There are echoes of the patronizing helping Holliday refers to:
Underlying this deep and almost
inevitable chauvinism within the western gaze and making it even harder to see
the real problem is the embedded belief that the foreign Other is being helped.
(Holliday, 2011:79)
In fact in my context and
lesson, one could argue that it is I and other liberal-western Europeans that
are the real beneficiaries of these activities and that it is our sensitivities
and sensibilities that are being pandered too.
This three way interplay between British teacher, Bulgarian students and
Roma-Bulgarians is complex and one that needed a clear approach.
Creating
a framework
Prior to this study I lacked the researcher qualities to look too far, not even within the same building, for information. I did not engage with pre-existing research on similar topics based on the Bulgarian context for example Fay (2005), Byram (2001) and British Council's Branching Out Cultural Studies Syllabus (1998). Nor did I source available examples of lesson plans (Byram, 2001), portfolio worksheets (Little, 2003) and specific ICC text books (Huber-Kriegler, 2003). I agree with the research Byram (1991, 1994), Risager (1991), Damen (1987) that 'cultural content' in mainstream course books has come a long way, yet there is still further to go
I hope that using the ideas and
framework below gives some direction that can be used by language teachers who
wish to embark on ICT or uncover similar sensitive subject matter in their
classes.
Symposium
In my lesson there is a
suggestion of 'don't say that', 'say this', so I have used, perhaps unwisely, a
prescriptive, top-down approach. Indeed the pre-determined language aims of hedging
may reflect Holliday's (2007) perspective in the debates between him and Waters
(2007a 2007b). Holliday suggests Waters may be correct:
that superficial political
correctness can suffer from the same sort of narrowness—where it becomes de rigueur not only to protect the
‘oppressed’ by not speaking about them in a certain manner, but to believe that
a superficial linguistic regime is sufficient. We need, however, to distinguish
superficial political correctness from the need to take action against chauvinistic
perceptions which do have a serious, destructive impact. (Holliday, 2007:360)
However, I believe that the
lesson attempts to go beyond 'a superficial linguistic regime' by challenging
attitudes, and making students, for example, acknowledge their lack of
experience with the Roma community. The value of experience brings to learning,
and the development of skills, knowledge and understanding is well documented (Kolb 1984 & Bennett 1993).
I believe that we all have
pluricultural identities. For me this means that I belong to and identify with
any number of cultural groups including those of being: a male, a Tottenham
Hotspurs fan, a teacher, a south Londoner and a man in his thirties. These
identities and relationships are fluid, emergent and changing. The spaces where
I live are multicultural; and in the spaces are people who have different cultural make up and alignments to
my own. As people are not homogeneous, as many family units prove, there is
potentially intercultural communication taking place when any two or
more people interact.
DMIS
Bennett's (1998) Development
Model for Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) is a useful tool for assessing
levels of ICC and can be used to help plan courses and lessons (Bennett, nd).
Critiquing the DMIS
The word sensitivity is itself culturally loaded. For some being
more sensitive may not be a signifier of greater cultural competence, it may be
a sign of weakness or inadequacy. It is notable that this term IDI (intercultural
developmental inventory) is used instead of DMIS until 2003.
However, restating what is
meant by 'intercultural sensitivity' Hammer says:
We will use the term
‘‘intercultural sensitivity’’ to refer to the ability to discriminate and
experience relevant cultural differences, and we will use the term
‘‘intercultural competence’’ to mean the ability to think and act in
interculturally appropriate ways. We argue that greater intercultural
sensitivity is associated with greater potential for exercising intercultural
competence. (Hammer et al, 2003:422)
This distinct link between
experience and knowledge of a culture, and the skills and knowledge of how to behave and communicate
appropriately in that context is made with this framework. However, the DMIS
fails to considerthe sub-skills which make up intercultural communicative
competence (ICC). These are:
-
externalisation skills: the ability to step
outside usual perceptions
- analytical skills: the ability to
figure out what's going on in communication
- monitoring skills: the ability to keep
an eye on how things are going in communication
- communication skills: the ability to
avoid problems and repair problems
- anxiety management skills: the ability
to resolve the emotional aspects of intercultural communication
- tactical skills: the ability
to know when to (and when not to) undertake appropriate action in
intercultural communication. (O'Sullivan 1994: 135-6)
Where the DMIS is descriptive
of states of mind O'Sullivan's skills are more to do with online, real-time,
processing skills and resemble aspects of regular communicative competence. One
feels that these skills can be informed by knowledge but would be better
developed through practice and IC, particularly to develop affective aspects.
However, the DMIS:
“is not a
descriptive model of changes in attitudes and behavior. Rather, it is a model
of changes in worldview structure,
where the observable behavior and self-reported attitudes at each stage are indicative of the state of the underlying
worldview” (Hammer 2003 423).
Another issue with the DMIS is the
meta-labeling of ethnocentric and ethnorelative stages. Taking a small-culture
approach, where any group of people with a similar understanding of the world
can be defined as a cultural group, ethnicity is not the only defining feature
of difference, therefore I suggest cultural-relativism and centrism to be more appropriate terms. VanHook
acknowledges this difference in his interpretation of the DMIS:
The model defines
culture as any group with a set of similar constructs. Therefore, the intent of
the model is not limited to racial, cultural, and ethnic diversity. Rather, all
forms of diversity and differences among individuals may be included in this
definition. (VanHook, 2000:68)
The DMIS tracks the move from ethnocentric
perspectives to ethnorelative ones. This echoes much of what ICT practitioners
mention in their own models. Holliday talks about otherization, as: “the
reduction of the foreign other to less than what it actually is”(Holliday 2004:24) and has strong parallels with DMIS
ethnocentric stages.
|
More
experience |
||
|
Ethnocentric stages
Ethnorelative stages |
|
Denial |
Defence |
Minimization |
Integration of difference |
Adaptation of difference |
Acceptance of difference |
My learners in
Application of the DMIS to my context and
materials
When using the DMIS to critique
my lesson plan, it becomes clear that my materials were flawed in these
respects:
l
their was no formative testing of learners cultural sensitivity
l
the difficulty of stages was not incremental and
some of the activities required high levels of cultural reflexivity (the
ability to quickly shift frames of reference, and communicate in a way that is
appropriate to the context)
l
the one off approach (there was no follow on in
subsequent lessons)
l the lack of Roma participation /voice (potentially adding to otherization)
Level testing is a useful start
in any context, in this lesson it may not have been necessary to use
empathising activities or activities that “foreignised the familiar” (Elsen
2007) if the participants had been ethnorelative already and had needed
theoretical frameworks and models to better develop their pluricultural
identities.
As is the default for people
who have had a monocultural primary socialisation my learners were
ethno-centric. The poverty trap activity was generally manageable for these
learners as it addresses common humanity and is symbolic in its nature, yet its
implied focus on dominant group (theirs) privilege requires greater
intercultural sensitivity, according to the DMIS, than that which learners at Defence
have (Bennett, nd). This points to either inaccuracies in my assessment of my
students' DMIS rating or issues with the linear nature of DMIS staging.
Focusing on the home culture
first would have been a valuable activity in order to establish first what it
means to be Bulgarian, before exploring any alternative culture or small,
intra-cultural aspects of culture. After doing this I could have perhaps
focused on objective aspects of Roma culture to pitch activities at
learners current level of intercultural
sensitivity (Bennett 1993).
Proposed framework
The below is a logical bringing
together of the key issues raised through this reflection on my practice.
It is a logical starting point
to begin with some kind of evaluation that informs our approach. This could be
a self-assessment or done via observations. As teachers it is also important
that we also honestly appraise our own intercultural sensitivity. The DMIS is
very useful in this respect.
Provided our students results
are ethnorelative it makes sense to begin with the home culture. This “fronting
of the familiar” (Elsen 2007) or what Damen (1987) refers to by saying “that cultural awareness
necessitates uncovering one’s own culturally conditioning, as well as the
patterns of others”, is a necessary step that needs to be taken before engagement
with 'other' cultures.
Another equally useful point is
the notion that we should begin with objective cultural artefacts, if students
are in denial, and work towards subjective culture and complexities,
such as values, later. This lowering of the cognitive burden may enable
learners to make faster progress than if they are overly challenged.
l plan
activities / lessons / courses that have incrementally more challenging DMIS
stages in them
l focus
on the home culture before focusing on any other culture
l include
cultural content (objective culture) before subjective cultural themes (values,
beliefs, histories, privilege)
l define
key terms like 'race', 'ethnicity' (at minimization)
The below, are suggestions for
activity that may be taken at the ethnorelative stages. The development of
multiple frames of reference is seen as an indicator of integration and
thus learners approaching this stage can
practise shifting frames using externalisation activities (O'Sullivan 1994:99).
Once integration of difference has been achieved. Learners can be
enabled by using theories and models to help explain their emergent
understanding of themselves as pluri-cultural beings in a multi-cultural world.
At the next stage, adaptation to difference, study of more advanced,
subjective, cultural topics, such as humour, may provide support as students
attempt to engage as active participants across cultural boundaries. The final
stage acceptance seems to suggest a reflexive, relativism, whereby
students are able to participate fully and appropriately in ICC and understand
the ideology of cultural relativism that they are employing.
Finally, from the literature
and my experience I suggest the following
for longer term opportunities that exist to explore 'culture' in, or
around the language classroom:
l facilitate
independent student research
l facilitate
engagement with cultural mediators
l encourage
diary/portfolio keeping on key incidents where they experienced cultural
difference (Little, 2003)
l use
open ended material to encourage all students to participate to their best
ability in mixed (ICC) level groups
l work
on a small, personal scale but with “thick description” (Holliday, 2011:28)
l acknowledge
the complexity of culture
l incorporate
(inter)cultural themes frequently
l acknowledge
the ideological nature of intercultural communication
Target Language and level
As foreign language teachers,
if we take and emergent view of language system development, it is possible to
approach lessons using the suggested framework and approach learner language
issues as they arise. This entails
dealing with learners interlanguage forms, extending these, and providing
scaffolding. Even though we are language teachers we should also be aware of
the opportunities that exist for us to raise important global citizenship
topics or to demonstrate citizenship, through our own commitment to personal
change .
Conclusions
My production of a stand alone
lesson integrated into a few general and business courses, is not adequate to
develop my students’ ICC and I need to fully integrate ICT, just as I do
with pronunciation or motivation, into my praxis. Using the framework my ICT
can become more responsive, reflective and analytical. In the lesson where I
have imposed a viewpoint on the students this top-down moment is conflictual
and is potentially derailing. The use of symbols and the more subtle activities
in the lesson are compromised and this may lead to the learners sensing the
superficial. However, the opportunity to
challenge was taken and it is one I am
personally proud of.
It is troubling that static,
large culture, reductionist, nationalist, ethnocentric viewpoints currently
occupy much of the popular and political mindset in
Language teachers have an
opportunity to address reductionist ideas and chauvinistic language and can
challenge learners to develop their ICC by using language that is culturally
appropriate and considers their context and interlocutor. At the same time
teachers need to be cautious of dealing with issues only from a linguistic
point of view. Failure to explore deeper may create the wrong impression in
students.
A further word of caution about
otherizing through 'help' and of confusing their own judgements and needs with
those of a target community in a top-down way that excludes the participation
of the 'helped' group.
Challenging learners with this
kind of work brings 'authenticity' to the classroom, which is likely to be
motivating. These kinds of lessons may also develop interpersonal and cognitive
skills, and move learners away from inhibiting constructs to becoming confident
citizens in a world, that for most people, is growing more diverse.
Word count 3,355. References
Bennett, M. (1993) Towards a
Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity in R. Michael Paige, ed. Education for the Intercultural Experience.
Bennett, M. (1998) Basic Concepts
of intercultural communication:Selected Readings Yarmouth, ME.,Intercultural Press
Bennett, M. (nd) Developmental model of intercultural
senstivity
www.library.wisc.edu/edvrc/docs/public/pdfs/SEEDReadings/intCulSens.pdf
British Council (1998). Branching out: a cultural studies syllabus
Byram, M. and Esarte-Sarries, V. (1991), Investigating
Cultural Studies in Foreign Language Teaching: A
Book for Teachers, Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters.
Byram, M., Morgan C., & Colleagues. (1994). Teaching and Learning Language and Culture.
Clevendon: Multilingual Matters.
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and Assessing
Intercultural Communicative Competence, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Byram,
M. Nichols, A. & Stevens, D.
(eds.) (2001). Developing
intercultural competence in practice.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Damen, L. (1987). Culture
learning: The fifth dimension in the language classroom,
Elsen, A. & St. John, O. (2007). Learner
autonomy and intercultural competence. In Sercu, L.
and
M. Jimenez Raya (eds.), Challenges
in Teacher Development: Learner Autonomy and
Intercultural
Competence.
Frankfurt am
Evans, S. (2010)Germans
Wrestle with Multi-cultural identity http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe- 12090328?goback=.gde_2740568_member_38979467 retrived January
2011
Fay, R. and Davcheva, L.
(2005). 'Interculturalizing education in
the
National Helpdesk for intercultural learning materials', Intercultural
Education, 16(4), 331 — 350
Hammer M.R., Bennett,M,J
Wiseman, R. (2003). Measuring intercultural sensitivity: The intercultural development inventory International Journal of Intercultural
Relations 27, 421–44,
Hinkel, E. (1999). Culture
in Second Language Teaching and Learning.
Holliday, A. (2007). Response
to ELT and 'the spirit of the times' ELT Journal Volume, 61(4), 360-366.
Holliday, A. Kullman, J. & Hyde, M.
(2004). Intercultural
communication: an advanced resource book
Holliday, A. (2011). Intercultural Communication and
Ideology.
Huber-Kriegler,
M., Lázár, I. & Strange, J. (2003). Mirrors and Windows. An intercultural communication
textbook. European
Centre for Modern
Languages. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential
Learning,
Little, D. & Simpson, B. (2003). English language portfolio: The
intercultural component and learning how to learn.
Retrieved January 17, 2011, from http://www.coe.int/T/DG4/Portfolio/documents/Templates.pdf
Naydenova,
V. (2010). Proud to be Bulgarian, European and Roma. Retrieved January 17,
2011, from http://www.sofiaecho.com/2010/11/12/992204_proud-to-be-bulgarian-european-and-roma
O'Sullivan,
K. (1994). Understanding ways: Communicating between cultures.
Iremonger.
Risager, K. (1991), “Cultural References in European Textbooks:
An Evaluation of Recent Tendencies”, in Buttjes,
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Clevedon:Multilingual Matters, pp. 181-192.
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17, 2011, from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/blogs/barry-tomalin?page=2
Waters, A. (2007a). ELT
and 'the Spirit of the Times' ELT Journal Volume, 61(4), 353-9.
Waters, A. (2007b). Ideology, reality, and
false consciousness in ELT ELT Journal Volume 61(4), 367-8.
VanHook, C, W (2000) Preparing Teachers for the Diverse
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Appendices
All material
referred to in this essay are available online via ara-bic-pen.blogspot.com, by
contacting the author eddrussell@yahoo.co.uk or as google docs:
c)
worksheets:
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B1K1CWvIp_zqMDA0NjgxOTYtNzcwZC00YjRjLTkzNmYtY2Q5ZmQ5YzU2ZTRm&hl=en_GB&authkey=CJDctkc
d) Lesson Plan. - https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B1K1CWvIp_zqZjIxZTQ1Y2EtYzZhZi00ZTE3LTkyYTItOTM1N2I0YmJmZTBl&hl=en_GB&authkey=CInglKAG
ROOM 2
William DeGenaro -
Presentation: Linking
Exchange in the
Writing Classroom
Abstract
Target audience: mainly university teachers or teachers interested in contrastive cultural issues
PAPER
Tharwat Dabaja-
British Council -
Presentation: Incidental Vocabulary via Word Games
Abstract
It
is generally accepted that a considerable percentage of the L2 vocabulary of
a
learner is acquired incidentally, i.e. as a ‘by-product’ of word games (Nagy,
Anderson& Hermann 1985, Nation & Coady 1988, Nation 2001). In EFL/ESL
classes, activities such as games are often employed to encourage speaking,
usually in a rather carefree atmosphere without the stresses of more
academically oriented study, such as written translation exercises, and
memorization of rules and lists.
Research has shown that games contribute to
vocabulary learning if they give students a chance to learn, practice and
review the English language in a fun and pleasant atmosphere (Nguyen &
Khuat, 2003). Games have been shown to be effective in helping students develop
incidental vocabulary in various ways.
Firstly, the games being fun, non-threatening and non-demanding reduce
the level of anxiety associated with learning and remembering new words.
Students find it easier to retain the meanings of words they pick up in a
relaxed manner (Nguyen & Khuat, 2003).
Secondly, games usually involve a degree of friendly competition and
this keeps the students interested. They are motivated to get involved in
playing the games and in the process pick up new words. Lastly, games bring the real world context in
to the classroom, and enhance the students’ use of English in a natural,
flexible and interactive manner. In planning games to effect incidental
vocabulary learning, the insightful teachers should consider the class size,
its proficiency level, cultural context, timing, learning topics and
classroom settings (Shaptoshvili, S.
(2002).
Target audience: Middle &
secondary teachers
PAPER
Research has shown that games contribute to vocabulary learning if they give students a chance to learn, practice and review the English language in a fun and pleasant atmosphere (Nguyen & Khuat, 2003). Games have been shown to be effective in helping students develop incidental vocabulary in various ways. Firstly, the games being fun, non-threatening and non-demanding reduce the level of anxiety associated with learning and remembering new words. Students find it easier to retain the meanings of words they pick up in a relaxed manner (Nguyen & Khuat, 2003). Secondly, games usually involve a degree of friendly competition and this keeps the students interested. They are motivated to get involved in playing the games and in the process pick up new words. Lastly, games bring the real world context in to the classroom, and enhance the students’ use of English in a natural, flexible and interactive manner. In planning games to effect incidental vocabulary learning, the insightful teachers should consider the class size, its proficiency level, cultural context, timing, learning topics and classroom settings (Shaptoshvili, S. (2002).
Knowledge of vocabulary not only refers to its size, but also its depth which
includes: knowledge of pronunciation, spelling, multiple meanings, the contexts
in which the word can be used, the frequency with which it is used,
morphological and syntactical properties, and how the word combines with other
words (Qian, 1999). Vocabulary can be learnt intentionally or
acquired through incidental learning. Intentional vocabulary acquisition is memorizing word after word with their
respective translations from a list. Intentional learning is quick, but
superficial. Learners encounter vocabulary in an isolated, often infinitive
form and are incapable of using it correctly in context. Incidental
vocabulary is the vocabulary that second language learners develop or “pick-up” while they
are engaged in a variety of communicative tasks and not focused on learning new
words, therefore there is focus on meaning and not form. A lot of a student’s vocabulary will have to be
learned in the course of doing things other than vocabulary memorization.
Repetition, richness of context, and motivation may add to the efficacy of
incidental learning of vocabulary. However, learners need to understand about 3,000 word families (e.g.,
the family of "think" includes think, thinks, thought, thoughtful,
thoughtfully) in order to understand meaning from context (Laufer, 1997).
There are three types of word games
which may be used; physically active games, passive games, and worksheets. The
physically active games proved to be most effective, followed by the passive
games, worksheets were the least effective. Benefits of Incidental vocabulary
via word games
Ø Repetition of terms
Ø Rich context
Ø Motivational for the learners
Ø Learners comprehend every term
Ø Word meanings are deeply and solidly embedded in
mental lexicon
Ø Personalized vocabulary acquisition in authentic
texts
Ø Encounter term together with syntactic information
which helps using accurate words in an idiomatic way
Ø Vocabulary in context appears repeatedly under
different aspects and hence engrains in the learners mind
Benefits of games
Ø
Practice
content, whilst keeping the learner interested in repetitive tasks
Ø
Motivating
Ø
Attractive;
interactive, fun and challenging
Ø
Novel;
different environment, change from normal class activity
Ø
Atmosphere;
relaxing and good for low achievers who avoid structures learning activities
Ø
Low
anxiety
Defining activities:
Ø
Learners invent true and false definitions of
words and chunks to test other learners.
Ø
Games like Pictionary (drawing what partner describes),
taboo (verbal definition without keywords) etc
Ø
Completing crosswords
Ø
Board game with definitions on squares
Ø
Bingo: Teacher gives definitions and learners
cross off words.
Ø
Password and concentration
Matching Activities:
Ø
Target word or chunk with a definition
Ø
Target word or chunk with a synonym or antonym
Ø
Target word or chunk with a picture
Gap Fill Activities
Ø
Sentences with target word or chunk omitted
Ø
Story with several words or chunks omitted
Creative Use:
Ø
Learners write true sentences about themselves
using target words or chunks
Ø
Learners write a story incorporating the target
words or chunks
Ø
Discussion or debates involving the use of
target words or chunks
Word Games
1.
Write sentences using only one vowel.
e.g. Alan’s grandma always had asthma attacks
Ellen’s seven nephews were seen everywhere.
John’s got to go to
|
DOG |
JET |
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FOLK |
TREE |
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JUMBO |
ORGAN |
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FLOWER |
LIFTER |
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FAMILY |
COLLAR |
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MOUTH |
STICK |
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SHOP |
SONG |
|
LIP |
BED |
2.
Rearrange the nonsense compound nouns in each
group below so that they make eight real compound nouns.
|
FAN |
LAG |
|
FOLK |
TREE |
|
JUMBO |
ORGAN |
|
FLOWER |
LIFTER |
|
FAMILY |
COLLAR |
|
MOUTH |
STICK |
|
SHOP |
SONG |
|
LIP |
BED |
3.
Rearrange the letters of each nonsense word
below to form a real word which has a similar meaning to the word in brackets.
e.g. (strange) launuus Answer: unusual
a) (funny) gainsum
claimco omushuro rashiliou
b) (child) houty greenate grenytous
cotenadles
c) (think) sume endrop droncise lampettonce
PUZZLE IT OUT
BLOCKBUSTER
Using only the BLUE letters, fill in the spaces to find seven which read across from left to right. Remember, only the BLUE letters can be used and each must be used at least once for every word
G R E
----- ------ A-----
------
----- ----- ----- N
------
------ ------ ------- ------ T
-------
------ ------- ------- ------ S S
------ ------- -------- -------- D I ------- --------
--------- ------- -------- -------- N ------- A -------- -----------
--------- --------- --------- --------- N --------- ---------- A T ----------
ANSWERS: GEAR- GREEN- REGRET- REGRESS- GREEDIER- GREENGAGE- REGENERATE
Puzzle it out
Change the word SHORE into CRASH in
sixteen stages, changing one or two letters at a time. (The number in brackets
after each clue tells how many letters of the preceding word need to be changed
to form the new word.)
|
|
S |
H |
O |
R |
E |
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1) e.g.
2-0 (1) |
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2) to
frighten (1) |
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3) to
do with music (1) |
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4) a
mammal (2) |
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5) a
conjunction (1) |
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6) a
sign or pleasure, happiness (2) |
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7) an
odour (2) |
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8)
foreigners often find it difficult to do this in English (1) |
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9)
parents should try not to do this to their children (2) |
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10) a
country (2) |
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11) a
means of transport (2) |
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12) a.............of
sand (1) |
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13) a
fruit (2) |
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14)
cows do this (1) |
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15) to
rub out (2) |
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C |
R |
A |
S |
H |
Answer Key:
1. SCORE 2.
SCARE 3. SCALE 4. WHALE 5.
WHILE 6. SMILE
7. SMELL 8.
SPELL 9. SPOIL 10.
13. GRAPE 14.
GRAZE 15. ERASE
Add two letters
Add two letters to each of the
following words (in any place) to form a new word. A clue is given to help you.
1) SIT ............................................... Ordinal number
2) SEE ............................................... Shop assistants do it
3) WAY ............................................... Very tired
4) LAY ............................................... Tall and very thin
5) CART ............................................... A vegetable
6) RAGE ............................................... A fruit
7) WAR ............................................... It’s good for the garden
8) DAY ............................................... A short holdup
9) EAT ............................................... It comes to everyone
10) OR ............................................... Part of an apple
11) RIPE ............................................... Helps you cook
12) DEAR ............................................... Dull or boring
13) COME ............................................... Opposite or expenditure
14) HAY ............................................... Most people would like to be this
15) ROW ............................................... A lot of people
16) TEN ............................................... Frequently
17) SAW ............................................... You wear it
18) SAD ............................................... Can be tiring to do this for a long time
19) BAND ............................................... It tastes nice, especially with coffee
20) RUG ............................................... Popular games in
21) SEEN ............................................... A country
22) CARE ............................................... You walk on it
23) SET ............................................... A piece of linen
24) STALE ............................................... Used in an office
25) POLE ............................................... Opposite of discourteous
Answer Key:
1) SIXTH 2) SERVE 3) WEARY 4) LANKY 5)
CARROT 6) GRAPES
7) WATER 8) DELAY 9) DEATH 10) CORE 11)
RECIPE 12) DREARY
13) INCOME 14) HAPPY 15) CROWD 16) OFTEN 17)
SHAWL 18) STAND
19) BRANDY 20) RUGBY 21)
25) POLITE
Yvonne Stead Nasr - Director of Education,
Presentation: A Brief Introduction to the SAT®
Reasoning Test, Detailing
Appropriate
who speak English with 2nd or 3rd
Language Fluency
Abstract
The SAT® Reasoning Test is administered by the College
Board,
The SAT
Reasoning Test Score Report gives three scaled scores in Math, Critical
Reasoning and Writing and an essay sub score within the range 200-800. There is
no passing grade. Critical Reasoning comprises 67 multiple choice questions:
one third sentence completion and two thirds text comprehension. Writing
comprises one essay (no subject choice) and 49 multiple choice questions,
requiring identification of errors, improving sentences and improving
paragraphs.
To
uphold the interests of an ethnically and socially diverse student body, the
College Board maintains that the SAT does not require preparation. However,
many of our students in
English
language teachers should be familiar with the SAT Reasoning Test and begin to
prepare their students from Grade 8 by emphasizing: proactive reading,
vocabulary, prefixes and roots, the eight relevant grammar rules and pertinent
essay writing skills. In addition, familiarity with the test format will help
to build student self confidence and overcome the issues of fatigue that
generally arise when students are taking the test.
Target
audience: Teachers
of grades 8-12.
PAPER
The SAT® [1] Reasoning
Test (SAT) is administered by the College Board, United States, to Grades 11
and 12, US and international students. The test is required of undergraduate
applicants seeking entry to most English language universities in
One of the factors universities will base their applicant acceptance on
is the total SAT score. Most college web sites and catalogues will give an idea
of the SAT score their admitted students generally achieve. Overseas universities will take the highest overall score taken in
one edition as a student’s SAT score. By contrast in
The SAT is a paper
based test composed of 10 sections that test Math, Critical Reading and Writing
skills over 3 hours and 45 minutes. On
the SAT Score Report are three scaled scores: Math, Critical Reading and
Writing each reported in the 200 - 800
range and an essay sub-score. The corresponding
SAT percentile scores, in which scores are compared to those of other students
who took the same test edition, are also provided. SAT Tests are designed to
give an average of 500 in each Section with a perfect score being 2400. For
2009 college-bound seniors:
Total #
test-takers: 1,530,128
Scoring 800 M: 10,052
Scoring 800 CR: 8,833
Scoring 800 W: 4,946
Scoring 800 M + 800 CR: 1,192
Scoring 800 M + 800 CR + 800 W: 297[3]
A
penalty system operates for all parts of the SAT Reasoning Test multiple choice
sections (but does not operate for the math grid ins.) Each wrong answer
results in a ¼ point off the total number of correct responses. An unanswered
question is not penalized. The computed final score is called the raw score.
The raw score is rounded to the nearest whole number (½ point and ¾ point are
rounded up, ¼ point is rounded down) and is then related to the SAT score on
scales which are unique for that edition of the SAT.
The College Board has recently introduced a Score Choice option whereby students
can hold back reporting their SAT score until they feel it truly represents their
abilities. Each university has its own score reporting requirements. (For
example, students applying to Harvard are now free to use this option. This
allows applicants multiple opportunities to crank up their score, whereas in
previous years Harvard stressed the SAT should only be taken a maximum of two
times.) Score Choice is available from the website.
Figure 1: Section and
Question Distribution
For logistical reasons the Essay will always come first and a 10 minute Writing section last. Taking into consideration the fact that several booklets of the same test are distributed at each test, the other sections can come in any order according to the booklet the student is given – there may be three math sections one after the other, for example. One section is an Equating 25 minute section either in Math, Critical Reading or Writing, (but not the Essay) which will not represent part of the final scores. The Equating section is used to ensure compatibility with other editions of the SAT and to try out new question types. Students won't know which section is the Equating section, so they have to do their best on all sections.
The Critical Reading raw score is computed from the number of correct and
incorrect student responses to the multiple choice sentence completions and
passage based reading questions. The SAT Reasoning Test Critical Reading scaled
score is then computed from the raw score in a Critical Reading Conversion
Table.
The Writing raw score is computed from the number of correct and incorrect student responses to the identifying sentence errors, improving sentences, improving paragraphs questions and essay writing. Identifying sentence errors, improving sentences, improving paragraphs questions are all multiple choice questions. The essay is given a raw score from 1- 6 by two readers each; these two scores are then added to give a final score ranging from 2 -12. Blank pages and essays off topic will be given a 0. The essay raw score is recorded as a sub score on the final Score Report. The Writing scaled score is converted from a Writing Conversion Table that relates the multiple choice raw score and the essay raw score. The multiple choice raw score is worth approximately 70% and the essay raw score 30%. It should be noted also that the Essay is submitted to the colleges to which students have applied; the Essay therefore will represent an important part of student college applications.
Registration
The test is offered six times a year internationally in May, June,
October, November, December, and January. AMIDEAST are
the ETS, College Board, representatives in
SAT Skills
The SAT requires a different set of test skills from those students use for school exams, and they need to learn how to approach the SAT most effectively. We will take a look at each type of question and ways of tracking down the correct answer.
Critical Reading
Teachers from Grade 8 onwards should begin to give students lists of vocabulary words each week to learn and absorb. These words should be taken from texts that students are reading in class and so will have immediate relevance. Twenty new words each week will result in increasing the vocabulary bank by around 400 words in one school year. If two term tests plus a final that incorporates the whole year’s vocabulary are given, the words should become part of a student’s everyday vocabulary. Moreover, the author has discovered students love the idea of learning 500 words and boast about their misery to their peers. To get a good idea of the type of vocabulary that is needed, Barron’s textbooks (2010) have their own hit lists of ‘SAT Vocabulary.’
However, if students are short of time, it might be impossible for them to learn effectively all the suggested words and a salvage operation needs to be mounted. The best thing for these students is to learn prefixes, grouped into positive, negative or neutral connotations; the next best thing is to add learning roots. Quite often, in sentence completion, students will only have to identify whether they need a positive or negative word – the prefix will define whether the word is positive or negative and that may well be good enough for their purposes (even if they don't know what the whole word means.) Other clues to look out for are: punctuation, where a sub-clause introduced by a comma, a colon or a semi-colon gives the definition of the word; a series of words with the missing word defined by the other words in the list; trigger words such as ‘although’ which change the connotation of the sentence from positive to negative or vice versa. Finally, words that are familiar in French or Spanish can be taken as having the same meaning in English; this is a very useful trick which French speakers need to learn.
Summarizing, when students are solving sentence completion questions they need to look for:
There are 19 sentence completion questions (8 + 5 + 6 in three different sections, and in any order) which get more difficult moving through the section (i.e. Q 8 is harder than Q1).
A word suggestion cannot be eliminated just because it’s unfamiliar. It is a possibility. If a student can eliminate at least one suggestion, and has absolutely no clue about any of the other words, then a guess should be made before moving on. However, if at least one suggestion can be eliminated, and the student knows something (no matter how vague) about one of the remaining suggestions that possibly could fit the answer, then that suggestion should be chosen. If nothing can be eliminated, guessing is not appropriate. Each sentence completion question should take no longer than a minute and a half, and an eight question section no more than five minutes.
Very generally, in Sentence Completion, the first third of questions are easy, the second third medium hard and the final third, difficult. Generally, an easy question demands an easy answer; a difficult question demands an easy answer.
Using these techniques will give clues as to which word is the best answer (and it should be remembered that often more than one word will fit in but the best has to be selected.)
Critical Reading
The passages vary in length from 100 – 850 words, with approximately 10 words per line. The lines are numbered for easy identification. As a rough rule, 2 questions are set for every 10 - 15 lines. The passages are selected from the fields of literature, science, the humanities and social studies. In every edition of the SAT, each field will be represented by only one passage or paired passages. Some of the passages stand on their own - the questions set at the end of the passage will only relate to this one passage; others, known as paired passages, are related not only by subject matter but also by questions. Paired passages will support, oppose or complement one another (and whichever the case, this will be made clear by the blurb at the top.) Passages may be narrative, expository, persuasive or literary.
There are 48 questions in three different sections and more than two-thirds of critical reading points come from comprehension questions. Unlike sentence completion, the questions do not get more difficult as students work through the passage - questions are posed according to the line number, not the level of difficulty. This means if students can’t do one question, they should leave it and move on – the next one may well be much easier. The time limit for answering any question should be around one minute and a half. Students should eliminate choices as they go through and cross them out and read all of the answer choices. For example, choices D and E cannot be ignored because they have long words in them. If students can only eliminate one choice, they should guess and move on promptly.
Students must concentrate fully and read proactively. If necessary they must train themselves to read actively by reading 100 word passages and at the end immediately ask themselves what the passage is about. If they can't answer immediately, it means they weren't concentrating and should read the passage again.
The method of
reading will be determined by the reading fluency of the student: fast readers
will have time to read the whole passage, while second and third language
readers should read the first and last lines of every paragraph (and every
tenth line in long paragraphs) where topic sentences are usually lying in wait
for the alert reader. Very often in
topic sentences, the same words will probably appear throughout the passage.
These words are what the passage is all about: the main idea. An 850 word passage should take 3-4 minutes, with
correspondingly shorter times for the shorter passages. (For a 100 word
passage, allow a maximum of 45 seconds.)
There are three main types of questions which are discussed in the next section.
Literal
Comprehension.
After reading or scanning the passage, students should skim the question and answer choices very quickly. If the question refers to a line or lines, they should go back and read the lines again plus 1-2 lines above and below if more information is needed. Then they should reread the question carefully and each one of the answer choices. The correct answer choice is a paraphrase of the words that appear in the passage. Sometimes it is better for a weak student to concentrate on eliminating wrong answer choices rather than identifying the correct one, although anything a student does not understand is still a possibility and cannot be eliminated.
Vocabulary in Context.
Although these questions are in the passage
based reading sections, vocabulary in context is none other than sentence
completion. Students should read the question but not the answer
choices, return to the passage and substitute "blank" for the given
word. They now put a word of their choice into the blank within the context of
the sentence. It doesn't have to be a fancy word – something simple like
'happy' or 'bad', or even a little phrase such as 'more sad than sad,' is quite adequate. Now, within the answer
choices there will be a synonym for the word they substituted for “blank” and
the synonym is the answer.
Extended Reasoning.
Extended reasoning questions ask students to select answers by making conclusions about information in the passage. These answers are not directly stated in the passage. Students can recognize these questions by the use of key phrases such as:
· The passage suggests that …
· Both authors would both likely agree…
· The author would most likely characterize…
· The first paragraph implies that…
·
It can be inferred …
·
Probably…
· Apparently…
Some of these
questions have no line reference and should be left until all or most of the
other questions have been answered at which point students will have a greater
comprehension of the passage. These questions can best be approached by a
process of elimination: eliminate any answer choice that goes too far in
explaining something, is too extreme, or politically incorrect. Very often if
an answer choice sounds like rubbish, it is rubbish and can be eliminated.
Writing: Essay.
The essay is the first section of the SAT. In twenty five minutes the essay should proficiently develop a point of view on the given topic and demonstrate critical thinking, using appropriate examples, reasons and any other relevant evidence which supports the student’s point of view. It should be well organized and clearly focused. An outstanding essay would probably result from a template such as this:
· A clear thesis statement in the introductory paragraph.
· Point 1 supporting the thesis statement, developed from a topic sentence.
· Point 2 supporting the thesis statement, developed from a topic sentence.
(Points 1 and 2 may be combined to produce a narrative that deals with a single topic.)
·
Point 3, which does not support the thesis statement, developed from a
topic sentence.
· A conclusion which reconfirms the thesis statement but includes a reference back to the essay contents.
The essay must give the reader a better mental image of what is being described by using specific, everyday words. Appropriate vocabulary does not imply overuse of either esoteric SAT words thrown in to impress the reader or indefinite words such as ‘somebody’, ‘one’ and ‘persons’. The SAT essay also unusually allows the writer to introduce the first person point of view – in fact it is encouraged in the assignment details – so as to allow personal experiences to be related.
Grammatically, the essay should:
· Demonstrate variety in sentence structure which ensures the writing becomes more interesting but remains unambiguous. Use of simple (one focus), compound (two simple sentences joined with a coordinating conjunction), and complex (two observations which are not of equal importance) structures is necessary to obtain a high grade.
· Be free of most errors in grammar, usage and mechanics. Students are recommended to proof read and revise their compositions twice: once for content and organization and once for grammar, sentence structure, spelling and punctuation.
Students should be trained a few times each year to write a timed essay under pressure. When first facing the essay task, many students panic or waste time by copying down the title and looking around the room waiting for inspiration to strike. Students need to practice writing a quick thesis statement and topic sentence for each paragraph, although it should be emphasized this is not a Brevet assignment where the organization of the essay outline is graded.
Ideally the essay should be around 50 lines long because length is rewarded, although the College Board will probably deny this, and must have a conclusion. If students feel they are running out of time, they should stop their body paragraph with a complete sentence and write a conclusion. (They will get more credit for adding a conclusion than adding another sentence to the body of the essay.)
Students can also
be encouraged to research the lives of noteworthy people who could be quoted as
being examples of heroes, innovators, or outstanding members of the human race.
This avoids over reliance on Mother Teresa, Martin Luther King and Mahatma
Ghandi.
Writing: Improving Sentences, Identifying Sentence Errors, Improving Paragraphs.
Improving Sentences.
These demand of students the ability to recognize and write accurate, clear sentences. The error has to be identified and the correct version given.
Sentence
Errors.
These ask students to identify errors in grammar and usage: standard grammar questions are those that set questions on the conventional rules of writing a sentence. Standard usage questions are those which set questions on the language that people speak and write in formal situations.
Improving Paragraphs.
This exercise requires students to use their writing and revising skills
practiced in 'identifying sentence errors', and 'improving sentences'. Note
that this section does not require critical reading so the essay can be
scanned very quickly.
Specific
Grammar Requirements.
All questions have
definite, unambiguous answers – so students may well need to revise the
following grammar areas to enable them to score high:
·
Verb – subject agreement
· Verb forms and tenses
·
Use of comparisons
·
Pronoun choice
·
Adjective and adverb usage
·
Parallel Construction
·
Modifiers
·
Punctuation
·
Diction and Word choice
·
English idioms
SAT Practice
Students should be encouraged to work methodically through previously administered tests if they want to score high. Practice makes perfect not only because various question types keep coming up but also because students will beat their fear factor. The question also arises as to whether or not commercial SAT prep courses help students improve their scores. In an ideal situation, English teachers would have time to implement the strategies outlined above in their classes, and would have the necessary experience to teach students valid and valuable skills and techniques. However, many teachers who are concerned about finishing their normal programs, without adding extra topics to the curriculum, find they are obliged to offer SAT tutoring as an extracurricular option. From the author’s own experience, SAT tutoring does work – students can raise their scores and be accepted in the faculties and universities of their choice. Nevertheless, it is essential that before recommending any commercial course to students, teachers should verify tutors are experienced and have achieved perfect scores for themselves.
References
The College Board. (Eds.). (2009).
The Official SAT Study Guide™.
Carnevale,
L., & Teukolsky,R. (Eds.).
(2010). Sat 2400, 3rd Ed: Aiming for the
Perfect Score (Barron's SAT 2400) (3rd ed.). Hauppage , NY
Dr. Sahar Farouk Altikriti & Dr. Dima Alomari
- Al Isra University -
Jordan
Presentation: Communication is a key: the role of
teachers and
students to achieve effective classroom
communication
Abstract
Communication is a fundamental part of all of
our lives. There are many different methods of communication and we are gaining
more and more all the time. It is the process by which we exchange information
among individuals and groups of people. Classroom interaction is the situation
chosen in the present work to investigate the process of communication,
shedding lights on the problems that cause miscommunication among students and
teachers. In this presentation, 15 Jordanian
English language teachers at Al_Isra University and 200 students agreed to answer the questionnaires, the aim
of which is to look at some factors that enhance students’ academic
performance and self development and explore ways in which we can make them
more interesting and productive for both learner and teacher.
Target audience: University teachers
PAPER
1-
Communication models and
communication cycle
The process of communication takes place when
the sender of the message transmits ideas to another person or group of people.
Its effectiveness is measured by the similarity between the idea transmitted
and the idea received. Effective communication, basically, depends on factors
such as the attitudes of the people sending the messages, as well as other
factors that affect the clarity of the process of communication.
Fig.
(1) The Process of Communication
One of the earliest definitions of communication came from the Greek philosopher-teacher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). “Rhetoric” is “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion” (Rhetoric 1335b).
According to Aristotle, communication cycle is divided into the following stages:
(1) Invention: in which the speaker discovers rational,
emotional, and ethical proofs.
(2) Arrangement: as the speaker arranges the proofs strategically.
(3)Style: is the stage where the speaker clothes the ideas in clear and compelling words.
(4) Delivery: is the final stage as the product is delivered appropriately.
Various models were developed, such as Shannon_Weaver 1948, Hall and Fagen, 1956, and Brown’s Holographic 1987 ( see Barnlund 1968) all depending basically on the same stages of communication process, namely:
1- Source: the stage at which one is supposed to be clear about what he/she wants to communicate and why, taking into consideration the fact that the communicated information is useful and accurate.
2- Message: is definitely the information that you want to convey.
3- Encoding: at this stage, one chooses the form in order to transfer the information that can be decoded correctly, avoiding confusion and possible misunderstanding.
4- Channel: the channels through which the message is conveyed could be either verbal (i.e., such as face to face meetings, telephone calls, etc) or written channels (i.e., such as e-mails, reports, etc).
5- Decoding: is the stage at which the decoder starts handling the message (i.e., receiving the message, trying to understanding it, and later on reacting).
2- Classroom Interaction
Classroom interaction is very essential in today’s education system. It is a two way process consisting of transmission and feedback. Somasundaram (2006) argues that as a process of exchanging information usually via systems of symbols, communication occurs when there are two associated information producing processes, and the output from one process is the functional inverse of the other’s output. It is this what makes human communication interactive, transactive, verbal or non-verbal.
In the classroom context there are different elements that should work together for successful classroom interaction. There are two ways a teacher can communicate, verbally and nonverbally. Verbal communication includes the elements of the sender of the message, the receiver or listener, the message itself, the channels through which the message itself is sent and feedback. On the other hand, nonverbal messages are an essential component of classroom communication in the teaching process. According to Miller (1988) more feelings and intentions are sent and received using nonverbal communication rather than verbal communication. Some major areas of nonverbal barriers are eye contact, facial expression, gestures, postures, visual communication and body orientation.
3- Teacher_Student
Effective Communication
A big part of teaching is not just a
matter of imparting knowledge but it is also about effective communication in
the classroom. This effective communication provides the spirit of
understanding and co-operation between teacher and students; i.e., conveying a
message clearly and unambiguously.
To communicate effectively is not an
easy job for the teachers especially in classrooms that are growing in size and
may contain students who come from varied backgrounds. This means, effective
classroom communication faces several barriers / interferences. Some common
barriers are those of listening, perception, oral, cultural, emotional, and
gender. In order to remove such barriers of classroom interaction, teachers
must be aware of the importance of the communication skills in teaching. In
addition, they must also realize students’ different levels of strengths and
weaknesses. Thus, a teacher can enhance the learning process through
introducing creative and effective solutions to the problems of the students (
see Martin et.al. 1998).
Fig.
(2) Barriers of Communication
4- Coaching Strategies
The teacher plays an important role
in effective communication. Through coaching, the teacher can provide students
with feedback to enhance, maintain or improve their performance. There are
several different teaching (coaching) strategies that can be used depending on
the most appropriate situation. The strategies are those of instructing or
retraining, directing or guiding, and prompting. These strategies will assist
in creating a good relationship between the teacher and the students.
Possessing appropriate communication
skills is one of the important qualifications that teachers must have to
interact with the students. Following are some of the communication skills for
teachers (c.f Hunt 1971, Rika 1996, and Claugh 1999).
4.1 Positive
Motivation and Encouragement
The teacher
observes performance, shares knowledge and expertise, and provides
encouragement to assist students in reaching continuously higher levels of
performance. The best way for teachers to encourage communication from all
students is through classroom discussion or small group work. This creates
enthusiasm and interest in the minds of the students.
4.2 Fostering
Independent Thinking
The teacher must
enable students to develop their thinking and actions in response to differing
situations. Depend thinkers uncritically accept whatever they are taught and
rarely question or ask for information. On the other hand, independent thinkers
strengthen a team because they understand that different backgrounds and perceptions
bring different ideas and solutions. Although it is not an easy task to
influence students’ thinking, yet, the teacher can use his techniques for such
cases.
4.3 Effective Body
Language
A teacher must possess good presentation skills including
a powerful body language supported by verbal skills. This can create a long
lasting impression in the minds of the students.
4.4 Sense of
Humor
A good sense of
humor keeps the students active and interested in the teacher’s class.
4.5 Team Formation
The teacher can
divide the classroom into small teams and ask them to solve different problems
or complete assignments. This practice will increase not only the interaction
among the students but also among the teacher and students.
4.6 Technical
Skills
It is also
important that teachers should be up to date with all the latest teaching aids
like computers, video conferencing and especially the use of internet. This
will also help the students to keep up their interest in the learning process.
In respect to all these communication skills for
teachers, communication is the key that unlock all the doors and enhance the
teacher- student classroom interaction; it is the key to enrich and enhance the students’
abilities in learning the required course material. The relationship between the teacher and the student is
dynamic and depends on the two-way flow of symbols. The teacher depends on
feedback from the student to properly tailor the communication to the
situation. The teacher also provides feedback to the student to reinforce the
desired student responses.
5- Student-Centered and Teacher-Centered
Approaches
The concept of student-centered learning emerged in 1905 by
McCombs (1997) explains that the essential factor for student-centered approach is placing the learning characteristics of all learners under the microscope with the specific emphasis on low-performing learners. This means that the focus in a student-centered approach is on individual learner’s heredity, experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and needs. Due to these factors, student-centered education is thought to be intrinsically motivating and thus beneficial. According to Altan and Trombly (2001), student- centeredness is put as a model for countering classroom challenges to meet diverse needs. This is shown in placing students at the center of classroom organization and respect their learning needs, strategies, and styles. In other words, in student-centered classrooms, students can work individually or in pairs and small groups on different tasks and projects. This can be contrasted to teacher-centered approach.
Many teaching methods irrespective of discipline have moved over the years from teacher-centered approaches where the teacher is seen the source of all knowledge to approaches that are more than student-centered. The teacher- centered approach is basically associated with the transmission of knowledge. This concept was clarified by McDonald (2003) by saying that the work of teachers depends upon the abilities, skills and efforts of their students. In other words, teachers in teacher-centered environment focus on making relationships with the students that are anchored in intellectual explanations of selected materials. This was clearly discussed by Wingrad (2002) in his evaluation to the works of Tom Caroll and Judy Powers about the effect of how teachers teach in the classroom. Their view towards the old hierarchical roles of university professor, classroom teacher, and pre-service teacher must be broken down to allow teachers to get together and do what they do best, i.e., explore, experiment, create, implement and assess what is required to achieve student success.
Both approaches (student-centered and teacher-centered) recognize the student as a key factor in improving student achievement. Kember (1997) described a useful breakdown of these approaches by supporting many other views in relation to student-centered approach in that knowledge is constructed by students and that the lecturer is a facilitator of learning rather than a presenter of information:
…a leader or person who is perceived as an authority figure in the
situation, is sufficiently secure within herself (himself) and in her (his)
relationship to others that she (he) experiences an essential trust in the
capacity of others to think for themselves, to learn for themselves.
(c.f.
Due to this view, the teacher uses his/ her expertise in content knowledge to help students make connections. This is shown in relation to the importance it places in activity, discovering and independent learning. The constructivist view of activity is related to physical activities, such as projects, practices, etc. Thus, whether by small groups or whole class discussion, teachers can do much to create an interactive classroom (c.f. Cobb 1999, Carlile and Jordan 2005). In brief, the value of student and teacher classroom interaction is best reflected in the words of Edwards (2001):
Placing learners at the heart of the learning process and meeting their needs, is taken to a progressive step in which learner-centred approaches mean that persons are able to learn what is relevant for them in ways that are appropriate. Waste in human and educational resources is reduced as it suggested learners no longer have to learn what they already know or can do, nor what they are uninterested in.
6- Data Analysis
The sample of the study consisted of 200
students randomly selected at the college level, as well as 15 teachers, all
from
6.1 Analysis of Students’ Questionnaire
The results reflect that the highest percentage
( 56% ) of the students prefer “Sometimes” concrete, practical and procedural
information, presented linearly and in an orderly manner. This percentage
indicates that there is only one role played in the process of communication
which is of the teacher, i.e., depending more on the teacher’s than the
students’ efforts. In comparison, the data also shows that ( 28% ) of the
students prefer “Sometimes” to think, analyse and come up with their own
conclusions, i.e., depending more on the their own efforts rather than taking
ready-made and well organized information.
The analysis of the data also proves that
whereas ( 32% ) of the students “Often” consider using graphs, pictures,
diagrams, and videos significant material to enrich the process of
communication, ( 28% ) of the students would prefer to depend “Sometimes” more
on listening than on writing or other explanation facility. Moreover, ( 36% )
of the students insisted that depending “ Very Often” on writing and
documenting material by taking notes more than depending on their memories (
i.e., taking the teacher’s opinion into consideration as the only guide ) is
the best way to support successful classroom interaction.
On the other hand, according to the results in
the present research, ( 36% ) of the students rely “Often” on their intuition and
independent thinking, which supports the idea of communication to a great
extent as it encourages both sides ( the teacher and the student ) in
developing their ideas more and more.
The data also shows that ( 32% ) of the students
“Often” tend to ask for explanation in case they misunderstand certain points,
in comparison to ( 32% ) who “Rarely” ask for explanation and tend to keep
whatever they do not understand to themselves in order to figure it out later.
Teamwork activities are one of the important
activities that enrich the process of communication in classroom interaction.
According to the data, it is “Sometimes” preferable by students with a
percentage of ( 28% ).
6.2 Analysis of Teachers’ Questionnaire
Thorough examination and analysis of the
questionnaire answered by the teachers proved that an almost high percentage of
the teachers ( 83% ) “Very Often” tend to start their explanation of any topic
with background information, in addition to helping students understand the
underlying concepts behind the points under discussion. However, about (50%) of
the teachers tend to give the students the chance to let them conclude the
underlying concepts the material they discuss. With the same high percentage
(i.e., 83% ) of the teachers share discussions with the students. This is all
to make sure that the message they present is fully understood.
Thinking about what students may need to know
about any new topic, as well as following new communication methods as much as
possible, (both “Very Often”), comes as the next high percentage according to
the data in the present research: almost 67%, whereas ( 50% ) of the teachers
show that they “Rarely” follow traditional communication methods to convey
their messages to the students.
About ( 50% ) of the teachers, as realized from the
analysis of the data:
1- “Sometimes” get surprised to find that students do not
understand what the teachers say.
2- “Not at All” stop worrying about how students perceive whatever the teacher mentions or explains; assuming that they can work it out later.
3- “Often” correct students’ mistakes whether grammatical, pronunciation, or vocabulary choice mistakes.
4- “Very Often” use all possible material such as diagrams, figures, charts, etc, to support explanations of various topics.
7- Conclusions
When we consider the complex task of teaching, effectiveness is an elusive concept especially when some researchers measure teacher effectiveness in terms of student achievement. Classroom interaction (communication) is successful only when both the teacher and the student understand the conveyed thoughts and objectives through communication skills.
In the present study, analysis of the questionnaire answered by 200 students and 15 teachers in Al Isra University / English Language Department and Translation Department, shows that teachers’ full detailed information of the material under discussion in any of their lectures represents an essential element in positive teaching performance and eventually has a great impact on gains in student learning process. On the other hand, it is concluded that the students highly prefer to depend on teacher’s presentation rather than on their independent thinking. Therefore, the present study reveals that emphasize is on the teacher’s role in transforming knowledge, information and skills in the classroom, i.e., the emphasis on methods, activities, and techniques where the teacher decides what is to be learned, tested and how the class is to be run.
In sum, the teacher is the center of the classroom giving instruction with little input from the students and, hence, the classroom environment is teacher-centered.
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