Auditorium

You never get a second chance to make a good first impression or to capture the attention of learners at the beginning of a lesson or a talk. Most ELT professionals would agree that it is important to start effectively any learning experience – a conference, a talk or a lesson. In this seminar we will explore some of the psychological principles, structures and options that underlie effective openings. We will discuss the importance of such factors as rapport, welcomes, humour, personalisation, realia, warmers, stories, environment, and attention grabbing devices. We will also consider the extent to which language teachers should apply principles from psychology in their teaching.

Claire Ross – British Council

Recording and remembering vocabulary (workshop)

ABSTRACT

Have you ever looked at what your students write in their notebooks? How much do you encourage your students to take notes of new vocabulary? Do you ever show them different ways of doing this?

This session explores the value of using vocabulary notebooks in class. You will examine sample notebooks and see real examples of what students write. Together you will share current practice on how you encourage your students to record new vocabulary and evaluate some techniques that you could introduce in class. In particular we will look at how the decision-making process promotes memorisation and the value of recording ‘chunks’ of language as opposed to single words.

Aims

By the end of the workshop, teachers will have

Explored the effect recording lexis has on memory
Evaluated different ways of recording lexis
Practiced and evaluated some classroom activities on recording and remembering lexis

Target audience

This session is aimed at teachers of Cycle Two and above, although Cycle One teachers will find some sections relevant.

PAPER

Outline

Examining current practice
Recording vocabulary – how does it affect memory?
Vocabulary notebooks - evaluation of authentic samples
Organising lexis – some techniques for the classroom

1. Examining current practice

Are these statement true (T) or false (F) for you?

Writing things down helps my students remember them.
I always write new vocabulary on the board.
My students always take notes in class.
My students have a separate book for new vocabulary.
I don’t have time to let students write new words in class.
I usually write a translation of new language on the board for students to record.

2. Recording vocabulary – how does it affect memory?

80% of new language is lost forever within 24 hours. If you don’t do anything with the words, they won’t stick. This is why reviewing records is important.

Writing a translation of new language helps store vocabulary in the short-term but not the long-term memory. It has also been shown to help store receptive but not productive vocabulary.

Learners are 50% more likely to remember lexis if they have had some control over the recording process. Having control over the memorising or testing process also helps retention.

We naturally store language in ‘chunks’ in our brains (see Michael Lewis The Lexical Approach), so we should encourage learners to record it that way to make the transfer to memory easier.

If students organise lexis when they record it, they are more likely to be able to use the language, rather than just recognise it. Because of the deeper mental processing, organised records are more memorable and therefore more available for written and spoken production.

3. Vocabulary notebooks - evaluation of authentic samples

What methods have these students used to record vocabulary? Are they effective?

Methods/information included	Effectiveness
1 spider diagrams	Recording language in chunks promotes memorisation.
2 synonyms parts of speech	Helps learners to relate new words to old ones they already know. Useful when reviewing vocabulary so that learners know how to use it in a sentence. However these vocabulary items do not seem to be clearly linked.
3 translation, pictures	Translation is more helpful for securing new items in the short-term memory, not long-term.
4 explanation, substitution table, example sentences	Helps learners remember meaning. Helps learners to use new words more effectively in sentences. Substitution table means one phrase becomes many.
5 ‘chunking’ and pictures	Pictures help learners with a visual learning style. See also 1.
6 phonemic transcription, example sentence	Helps learners to remember how to say the word.

No one method is better than another. The main thing is that if a student has made decisions when recording vocabulary, if they have manipulated the words in some way, then this will promote memorisation. Learners who simply copy lists of words from the board are less likely to remember them because they have not been sufficiently cognitively engaged in the process. Recording vocabulary in a systematic way – for example by topic, alphabetically, by theme, date or lesson helps the brain to organise data. Long lists of unrelated words are less helpful and far less memorable.

4. Organising lexis – some techniques for the classroom

It is part of the role of the teacher to introduce different methods of recording vocabulary into the classroom to help learners make these decisions and to aid their memorisation of new lexical items. Here are some examples of how to do this. Please note that these are techniques for recording vocabulary only. The teaching of new items will have been done earlier in the lesson, or perhaps in a previous lesson.

Categorising

Learners are given a list of vocabulary items and write each one under a suitable category in a table in their notebooks. They then give reasons for their choices.

e.g. Under the topic of clothes, you could ask students to use one of these tables:

List of items:

woolly hat skirt swimming trunks gloves

Summer	Winter	Both
swimming trunks	woolly hat, gloves	skirt

Boy	Girl	Both
swimming trunks	skirt	woolly hat, gloves

Spider diagrams

This is good for recording collocations, reviewing new language and building on existing knowledge. It could be done to see what students know before you teach new lexis or as a kind of test to see how much they remember.

e.g. for daily routines lexis

lunch the washing up

a shower your homework

‘The house’

Learners draw a simple house in their notebooks and mark in the rooms. They then decide where to put new lexical items and give reasons for their choices.

Bedroom bathroom

Save money

Living room spend kitchen waste

Money money

e.g. “I put ‘save money’ in the bedroom because that’s where I keep my pocket money. I put ‘waste money’ in the kitchen because my mum bought some vegetables and they went rotten so she wasted money on them.”

There are no ‘correct’ answers for this activity. The point is that learners are cognitively engaged and the exercise promotes memorisation.

Bibilography

Bell International (2006) Vocabulary www.bellstudents.com/norwich/project10/vocabulary.htm (24/09/06)

Cohen A. 1987 Studying Learner Strategies: How We Get the Information in Wenden A. and Rubin J. Learner Strategies in Language Learning Prentice/Hall International

Darn S 2006 Neuro Linguistic Programming in ELT http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/methodology/nlp.shtml (24/09/06)

Dowling S 2006 Lexical Notebooks

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/vocabulary/lexical_notebook.shtml (24/09/06)

Frost R. 2006 Remembering Vocabulary
http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/vocabulary/remember_vocab.shtml (24/09/06)

Harmer J. 1991 The Practice of English Language Teaching Longman

Holec 1987 The Learner as Manager: Managing Learning or Managing to Learn? in Wenden A. and Rubin J. Learner Strategies in Language Learning Prentice/Hall International

Lewis M. 1997 Implementing the Lexical Approach Language Teaching Publications

Little D 2006 Learner Autonomy in the Language Classroom: Theory and Practice in Current Trends and Future Directions in English Language Teaching, Berlin ELT Conference 2006 Report

Lowes R. and Target F. 2001 Helping Students to Learn: A Guide to Learner Autonomy Richmond Publishing

McCarthy M. 1990 Vocabulary Oxford University Press

Palfreyman D. 2003 Culture and Learner Autonomy in Palfreyman D. and Smith R. Learner Autonomy Across Cultures: Language Education Perspectives Palgrave Macmillan

Rubin J. 1987 Learner Strategies: Theoretical Assumptions, Research History and Typology in Wenden A. and Rubin J. Learner Strategies in Language Learning Prentice/Hall International

Sprenger M. 2002 Becoming a “Wiz” at Brain-based Teaching Corwin Press

Thornbury S. 2002 How to Teach Vocabulary Longman

Wenden A. 1987 Conceptual Background and Utility in Wenden A. and Rubin J. Learner Strategies in Language Learning Prentice/Hall International

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Sheelagh Deller – British Council

De - stressing the Teacher and the

Learners.Taking the Boring out of

Repetition Exercices (workshop)

ABSTRACT

The sad truth is that in order to learn and use new language we need a lot of repetition. The other sad truth is that this can be very boring. This workshop will offer ways of doing repetition exercises in a number of different ways to add variety and overcome the boredom factor.

PAPER

I came across an anonymous quote the other day which made me both laugh and cry.

Some people talk in their sleep

Teachers talk while other people sleep!

Is this how the world sees us?

But the students aren’t the only ones who may be sleeping!

My work over the last 15/20 years has consisted of short intensive courses, either language teaching or teacher training. There are a number of pros and cons to this way of working. The advantages are:

I don’t have the chance to get bored, or in a rut
My learners don’t have long enough to get tired of me
I’m sometimes regarded as an interesting outsider – so my students don’t get too bothered about the things I do that don’t suit them
I’ve had the opportunity to learn so much from so many people
there is a lot of variety in my work working with teachers in and from many different countries in very diverse teaching situations.

On thing this has taught me is, that despite the differences in our working lives, there are a number of feelings that seem common to most teachers. And I’m feeling a lot of them at the moment.

a lack of confidence
feeling pressured
feeling isolated
feeling judged
the desire to be perfect

Take a few minutes to list the things that stress you in your work.

I imagine some of these are on your list.

pressure of time
fatigue
too much paperwork
testing
problems of discipline

Having to balance conflicting interests is perhaps one cause of our stress.

It’s difficult to keep everybody happy.

There’s a difference between:

What we think we should be doing

What our students think we should be doing

What the parents think we should be doing

What the authorities think we should be doing

What in reality we CAN do.

Perhaps what stresses us most is the conflict between the last and the first of these statements.

Here are some typical conflicts we may have.

Our wish List	Our Constraints
To do interesting open-ended activities	Lack of time
To be humanistic	Losing control and respect
To be pleased about what we do know	Worrying about what we don’t know
To value the tried and tested ideas we know work	Keeping abreast of new ideas
To remember and focus on our success stories	We tend to remember and focus on our failures
To please ourselves	Pleasing others
To think we our good enough	Being a perfectionist

Let’s turn our attention to the learners.

Many of our students have positive feelings and are motivated to learn and improve their English. However, as we know too well, there are also many who don’t. I’m going to do something now which is very negative. And I admit it is very contrived. But I want for a few moments to focus on the possible negative feelings our learners may have. That doesn’t mean that there aren’t any positive ones. But those aren’t our problem. Their negative feelings are the ones that concern us.

Look at these five different situations.

Learners feelings

A patient in hospital

A driver in a traffic jam

A learner in a classroom

A passenger waiting for…

A prisoner

I think that all these people may share the same feelings. They have feelings in common. Maybe not as strong as each other but still, the same feelings.

Take 2 minutes to list what these feelings may be.

helpless. frustrated, bored, impatient, sedentary, anxious, wanting it to end, trapped. powerless

I’m not suggesting that all our students have all these feelings all the time, but I do think it’s true that some of our students may have some of these feelings some of the time.

We need to try to create a safe learning environment for us and our students. I think that depends on these four factors, which all influence and interact with each other.

Motivation/self-esteem/achievement/independence

If our students have self-esteem they are more likely to achieve.

It they achieve they are more likely to have self-esteem

If they are motivated they are more likely to achieve

If they are motivated they are more likely to feel independent and take responsibility for their learning

If they feel independent they are more likely to be motivated

And so on….

Most of us want to be really good teachers. A few, over-ambitious people want to be perfect teachers but that is only going to lead to disappointment. But in our quest to be good teachers we perhaps tend to over-teach. We do too much. And the more we do the less our students do. We can make them feel helpless, controlled etc. I sometimes observe teachers teaching and I notice that at the end of a lesson, the teacher staggers out exhausted, and the students are fine. This seems the wrong way round. They are the ones who should be tired!

A dictionary definition of spoon-feeding is:

To provide someone with so many ideas and opinions that they don’t need to think for themselves.

Butterfly story

There was once a widower who lived with his two young daughters. They were very clever and curious girls and were always asking him questions about the world, nature, history etc. As they got older the widower realized he couldn’t always answer their questions so he went to see the wise old man who lived in the mountains and asked him if his daughters could come to live with him and be educated by him. This was a real sacrifice as he really didn’t want to part with them. However, the next day he took his daughters to the old man and left them with him. Once they got used to being separated from their father, the two girls were very happy as the old man could give them so much information and answer all their questions. However, after a time, this became a little tedious. They began to get irritated that he always had an answer. So they decided to try to tip him up. One of the sisters had a great idea. She told her sister that she would pretend to have a butterfly in her closed hand. She would ask the old man if it was dead or alive. If he said it was dead she would open her hand and let it fly away. If he said it was alive she would crush it in her hand. So they asked the old man the question:

Is the butterfly in my hand dead or alive?

The old man looked at them and said…..

Its destiny is in your hands.

Sheelagh Deller

Pilgrims

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Jemma Barzey – British Council

Using Visual Aids to Stimulate and Motivate Young Learners (workshop)

ABSTRACT

It has been scientifically demonstrated that visual aids allow for greater learning in the Young Learner classroom, and whilst school teachers are aware of the benefits, if time and resources are scarce, visual aids may be a tool that they can not or do not use to their best advantage.
Visuals help to lead the learner in drawing out language from their own knowledge and personal experiences. They encourage the learner to predict, infer, and deduce information from a variety of sources and also help to bring the outside world into the classroom, making the situation more realistic and therefore easier for the learners to relate to. This will then lead to the learner using appropriate language associated with the images and give them strategies to organise knowledge. Visual images can also be combined with texts to make learners more likely to think about the process of language.
The workshop will look at how you can choose the right visual aid for your learners, what should be taken into account when preparing visual aids and some ideas on how to use them in the YL classroom.

PAPER

Trained teachers will be familiar with different teaching methods and different types of visual aids. However, both new and experienced teachers can gain from new ideas for stimulating their students’ and learning.

As teachers and teacher trainers you already know that visual aids are important in learning and that they help students to retain information, but when there is a short amount of time and you don’t have many resources, visual aids may seem like something you cannot afford both in the monetary sense and the sense of time

Why use visual aids?

The method of teaching subjects where teachers talk and the students listen has changed to ‘learning by doing’ or discovery methods. With discovery methods, the teacher creates opportunities for the students to find out knowledge for themselves. It is also important for teachers to involve their students in making of the visual aids. In doing this the students will learn and remember more.

Advantages of using visual aids

They add reality, clarity and variety

Strengthen the clarity of the learning point

Increase the students interests

Make the learning point easier for students to retain

They brighten up a classroom

It’s fun!

Advantages of making your own visual aids

Making your own visual aids has many advantages:

§ It is less expensive than buying readymade visual aids – even if they are available

§ You can choose visual aids that are directly relevant and appropriate to your local community

§ You can design your visual aid specifically to suit your resources, your purposes and your students’ needs

§ Planning a visual aid will help you to define your teaching or training objectives and to clarify in your own mind what it is you are trying to communicate

§ Students can work with you in planning, designing and making visual aids.

Making visual aids with your students.

Making visual aids with your students can help to bring learning to life. Through this kind of activity, students have the opportunity to examine and think carefully about the topic or theme that they are studying through making, for example, masks for a play about important local issues. They can question parts that they don’t know and therefore come to understand the topic thoroughly.

The most effective part of learning takes place most when students take place in the process :

Doing

Making

Finding out things for themselves

In this way they remember the facts far longer and more clearly.

Choosing right visual aids

There are a number of issues to consider before starting to make a visual aid:

1. Can you involve the students in making the visual aid? The student can then use their own knowledge and imagination to think through problems and find out the answers for themselves

2. Can you bring in the real object instead of drawing the object on the board?

3. Are there any commercially-produced visual aids that would be useful? Are they suitable for the students’ needs?

4. Can the visual aid be made simply?

What are you trying to communicate?

After defining the activity, the next step is to think about what you are trying to communicate. What is your aim?

The most appropriate visual aid for the situation depends on what you want to teach.

Geography teachers could use maps or charts etc.

Maths teachers may use geometric shapes

Language teachers may use puppets for a role play.

To be effective, visual aids should reflect the current and particular situation but you could try to redefine negative stereotypes – for example, gender roles. However, you need to be aware that the visual aid will be less effective if it does not represent images your students are familiar with.

If the students feel the people in the picture are from a different place – are strangers, they will feel the learning point has nothing to do with them. They may not, therefore, want to study it, learn about it or find a solution. The visual aid must show situations that students can relate to, by using images from their own lives.

Practical Considerations

When you have decided on your aim and the appropriate activity there are some things you need to think about which will help you decide which visual aid to choose:

Does it need to made in a short space of time e.g. in less than an hour? Check how long it will take. Is there time for a follow up or will the visual aid be useful without more teaching.

Does it need to be re-used? Does it need to be durable as it will be handled repeatedly? Will it be on permanent display?

Types of visual aids

Visual aids which display information :

Poster, wall chart, banner, worksheet, flashcard, overhead transparency, pamphlet, newsletter, cartoon, comic book story, photo story,

Visual aids which summarise complex information :

Bar chart, line graph, pie chart, map, calendars, flow diagram

Visual aids for activities :

Card games, pocket chart, masks,

models and toys, rag doll, puppets

Tips to remember when making visual aids

Make a rough or practise version – e.g. a quick sketch. However, the more detail you put into your example, the more the students will be motivated to put effort into their own.

Visual aids need to be clear. Do not overcrowd the poster or picture with too many pictures or words.

Keep pictures as simple as possible. This makes it easier for the students to see and to

understand, but show enough detail to make sense.

A picture can be better understood when it has a clear meaning. Use a series of pictures to show more than one thing, or a sequence.

Pictures will be more successful if they are based on what is familiar locally – faces, clothes, houses, jobs etc.

Pictures of food, animals and objects are more difficult to recognise than those of people. Draw them clearly

Monitoring and evaluating visual aids

Keep a record of how, when, where and with whom you used a visual aid. Keep a record of any problems you or your students had when making the visual aid.

Evaluating the visual aid means that you should measure the success or failure of the visual aid. Did it communicate what was intended? Ask for feedback from your students so you can avoid mistakes in the future.

Online Resources for Visual Aids

www.britishcouncil.org.uk/kids.htm

www.teachingenglish.org

www.go4english.com

www.esl-galaxy.com

www.esl4kids.net

Bibliography

Harford N and Baird N. 1997 How to make and use Visual Aids

Heinemann Educational Publishing

www.britishcouncil.org

www.teachingenglish.org.uk

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Mary Whisenhunt & Sarah Martin – Qatar University

Using Social Networking Sites to Inspire (workshop)

ABSTRACT

Students and teachers in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) programs are increasingly interested in Computer-Mediated Instruction (CMI). However, incorporating social networking sites into Arab classrooms, while being culturally sensitive, is a challenge. In this workshop, the presenters will focus on demonstrating clear methods and activities in which the cyber world can meet real world needs resulting in heightened learning motivation.

CMI offers modern, technologically engaged students the opportunity to produce authentic language output in a familiar and non-threatening milieu. Using social networking sites also offers teachers the opportunity to create a collaborative community of learners by encouraging students to personalize the class curriculum. Students are allowed to express themselves freely, with or without teacher guidance, through a well-known medium. Furthermore, the popular CMI tools of social networking sites provide students with a creative way to practice language skills and themes included in the classroom curriculum. Studies have suggested that the use of CMI tools and activities increases participation of introverted students (Fotos & Iwabuchi, 1998) and enhances cross-cultural understanding (Kamhi-Stein & Browne-del Mar, 1997), in addition to general improvement in English skills (Lam, 2000).

The presenters will offer examples of activities using the four basic skills of reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Classroom ready materials for specific exercises regarding academic writing, critical text analysis, and real-world oral communication will be provided. These lessons will integrate the academic and non-academic English skills learned in the classroom with communication on social networking sites, such as Facebook and Twitter. Finally, assessment rubrics will be suggested that can be easily adapted to any curriculum.

Workshop attendees will also have the opportunity to generate activities and comment on areas of concern regarding the implementation of social networking lessons in their own student populations.

References

Fotos, S., & Iwabuchi, T. (1998, March). Using e-mail to build communicative competence. Paper presented at the 32^nd Annual TESOL Convention, Orlando, FL.

Kamhi-Stein, L. D., & Brown-del Mar, C. (1997). EFL teachers and e-mail instruction: Perceived language and professional benefits. CAELL Journal, 7(4), 14-19.

Lam, W.S.E. (2000). L2 literacy and the design of the self: A case study of a teenager writing onthe in

ternet. TESOL Quarter), 457-482.

PAPER

Teachers are often at a loss about how to engage students using the new social networking sites. Presenters will discuss ways to integrate these sites into EFL academic and non- academic curricula taking into consideration the needs of Middle Eastern students. Examples of academic and non-academic activities using the four basic skills of reading, writing, speaking, and listening will be offered specifically focusing on Facebook and Twitter. Classroom ready materials for specific exercises regarding academic writing, critical text analysis, and real-world oral communication will also be provided. Finally, assessment rubrics will be suggested that can be easily adapted to any curriculum. Workshop attendees will also have the opportunity to contribute to the idea generation of activities and comment on areas of concern regarding implementing social networking lessons in their own student populations.

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Gareth Dewar

Teacher Development Interactive – ACPD Online Course

for 21st Century ELT Professionals (presentation)

ABSTRACT

Teacher Development Interactive(TDI) is a video-based, online teacher development program that gives new teachers and teachers looking for a refresher a really strong foundation in teaching methodology.

TDI has three study models:

1.      Self Study: Online working at the teacher’s own pace
2.      Online Facilitated: Online working with a cohort of teachers and a TDI Master Instructor
3.      Blended: A longer course where the teacher works with a cohort of teachers and a TDI Master Instructor both online and face to face in a classroom

and offers four specialised modules, consisting of five lessons each:

       Fundamentals of English Language Teaching
       Reading
       Listening
       Speaking

A single module will generally take approximately twenty hours to complete in the self study and online facilitated learning models and approximately forty hours to complete in the blended learning model.

Each TDI lesson includes:

 Pre-recorded video presentations by ELT experts, powerpoint presentations, discussions, text and audio
 A course narrator who introduces the material, presents the lesson objectives, reviews key points and ties the material together

       Authentic classroom video
       Practical application tasks
       Interactivity
       On-going assessment
       Practical writing task at the end of each lesson which requires teachers to either reflect on the material and how they would apply it in their classroom, design a lesson or observe a real lesson and evaluate the results.

If the course is offered with an online facilitator, the facilitator can comment directly on the students’ writing and send back the comments electronically. The students’ writing is kept in an e-portfolio and a student can make up to 10 revisions if necessary.

TDI is designed to have the students interact with the content presented as often as possible through the use of a variety of interactive item types. In the development of these lessons, we focused on “input-output” which means whenever we present something to the users, we want to give them an opportunity to produce some kind of output.

In addition, each interactive activity comes with explanations. Teachers get immediate feedback of what is right and wrong and then the explanations continue to “teach” the concept more thoroughly.

Finally, at the end of the course, learners are granted certification from one of the world’s leading qualification bodies (Edexcel) and a top university (Hunter College – City of New York University).

Above information submitted on behalf of Mr. Jarrod Hingston by Lara Khouri.

PAPER

This presentation on Teacher Development Interactive will introduce Pearson Education’s new online teacher development programme.

Teacher Development Interactive is a video-based, online teacher development programme. Providing a really strong foundation in teaching methodology, Teacher Development Interactive is aimed at both newly-qualified teachers and more experienced educators who are looking to refresh their skills and knowledge.

With Teacher Development Interactive, teachers will learn with well-known EFL practitioners. Each online module focuses on a different teaching skill and is taught by a leading expert in that particular field. Participants can choose to work on a specific skill, such as how to teach reading or how to teach writing. Because Teacher Development Interactive is online, teachers can complete each module in their own time and at their own pace from anywhere where there is Internet access.

Teacher Development Interactive provides teacher development and training through a series of modules which combine text, video, audio, PowerPoint, discussion and quizzes.

Each module is hosted by a well-known expert in the field, an author, researcher or teacher trainer in English Language training. The module covering the Fundamentals of ELT is presented by Douglas Brown. Jack Richards presents the Listening module, Allen Ascher Speaking, and Jeremy Harmer covers Reading. The presenter appears throughout the module delivering video and PowerPoint presentations. For consistency and ease of use, each module follows the same pattern of instruction. Each module focuses upon one area of relevance to ELT teachers. Each module features five lessons and the format of the lesson is consistent across the modules.

A module consists of approximately 20-25 hours of content

Each lesson is divided into six sessions lasting 25-40 minutes each

Each lesson includes:

Objectives
2-3 minute video instroduction with the presenter
2-5 minute classroom video demonstration lesson
Discussion board
PowerPoint presentations
Reading passages
Interactive concept checks and practice activities
Practical application assignments
Final quiz

Certification

When a teacher completes any four modules of Teacher Development Interactive with a score of 75% or better on the final test for each module, he or she receives a TEFL Certificate from the English Language Teaching Institute at Hunter College, City University of New York.

Established in 1870, Hunter College is the largest college in the City University of New York system. The English Language Teaching Institute at Hunter College works with educators from around the world who want to refresh and improve their English language teaching and training skills.

Pearson Education believes that Teacher Development Interactive will meet the needs of teachers, who need a solid foundation in the most current ELT teaching methodology, as well as ongoing professional development without too much interruption to professional and personal life.

Pearson Education further believes that Teacher Development Interactive will meet the needs of school principals and administrators, who want quality professional development for their staff, at an affordable price, without loss of teaching time or interruption to class schedules.

Teacher Development Interactive provides professional development that is sustained and intensive. The programme deepens knowledge of content and methodology. It is collaborative and it enables teachers to apply knowledge and to reflect upon teaching.

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Laure Salem – University of Balamand

Intercultural communicative competence in EL education:

A small-scale quantitative study in a Lebanese university context (presentation)

ABSTRACT

Following the demands of the globalized world where people of different cultural backgrounds increasingly depend on one another, an intercultural communicative competence (ICC) approach through language education has become a need in the Lebanese context to help learners acquire the intercultural competencies identified by Byram (1997) - namely, knowledge, attitudes and skills that help learners become interculturally competent and possibly engage them. Being intercultural mediators or facilitators, English language teachers can play a crucial role in promoting ICC. However, few studies have been conducted in the Lebanese context regarding teachers' conceptions of ICC in English language education (ELE). The aim of this small-scale quantitative study is to investigate instructors' conceptions of ICC in a Lebanese university context to discover whether they promote linguistic knowledge along with communicative competence (CC) or the ability to communicate with native speakers or believe that language and culture ought to be taught in an integrated way. I adapt and use parts of Secru's survey (2005) i.e. closed question questionnaires to answer my research questions. The participants who agreed to answer the questionnaires consist of 15 Lebanese English language teachers at the University of Balamand. The findings have shown that teachers are more linguistically than culturally oriented. Thus, the findings indicate that there is a need to encourage teachers to reconsider their teaching approach and practice. This study might add to the ICC knowledge in the field and practice and encourage Lebanese English language teachers to promote ICC that may engage students and prepare them for the intercultural world in which they are living.

PAPER

Teachers’ perceptions of intercultural language teaching in a Lebanese

university context: A small -scale quantitative study

1. Introduction

Based on my experience as a university instructor and on discussions with my colleagues, I have noticed that students in the Intensive English Program (IEP) at the University of Balamand (UOB) show disengagement and disinterest in English language learning. The IEP course is designed to develop students’ skills in the areas of speaking, listening, writing, grammar, reading and vocabulary building. In the foreign language (FL) curriculum which governs it, there is no mention of intercultural objectives of language teaching (see discussion below). It is possible that students’ disengagement is partly a result of the focus of English language textbooks/materials, curriculum and teachers on linguistic rather than intercultural knowledge; It is a struggle to engage students under these conditions. This is perhaps not surprising as there is a great gap between what is being referred to in English language classrooms and students’ everyday lives. This could be what leads most of them to declare that they study English because it is a requirement in the syllabus

Several writers such as Hatoss (2004), Risager (2005), Seelye (1993) and Weaver (1986) point out that culture learning (CL) is at the core of language education and cultural competence (CC) - learning about another culture and comparing it to one’s own- should be a requirement in ELT. The writers prefer to combine language and culture into a single whole dominated by language, and to focus on the cultural dimension of language. More specifically, Hatoss (2004, p. 29) shows interest in defining cultural areas of language use. She believes that the focus should not be on teaching students about surface manifestations such as English food but on reflecting “on deeper cultural aspects , such as orientations to time, space and values in societies”.

Some writers believe that a learner should create a “Third place” and make it their own

( Byram , 1997; Damen, 1987; Kramsch, 1993; Liddicoat, Scarino, Papademetre & Kholer, 2003; Lo Bianco, Crozet & Liddicoat, 1999) . This third place involves decentring from the first culture (C1) but does not involve assimilating to the second culture (C2) and reflects a true intermediary third position (Liddicoat, 2003, p. 3) i.e. one student’s third place would be different to the third place of another student even if they were drawing on the same set of cultures. This third place is not according to LoBianco et al. (1999, p. 148) “a fixed point which will be common to all learners, rather the nature of the third place is negotiated by each user as an intersection of cultural perspectives of self and other”. For instance, cultures vary widely in their approach to food. Religions and belief systems determine aspects of diet in the Arab world. Accordingly, drawing a parallel with food in intercultural learning, when Lebanese students participate in simulations in English language classrooms and set the menu for a fictional British restaurant in an Islamic rural area in north Lebanon, they should take into consideration the local needs as well as the needs of the British restaurant. They should create a third place menu because Islam forbids eating pork and drinking alcohol.

To discover a third place, Liddicoat (2003, p. 3) and Secru (2005a, p. 131) suggest that the new objective of foreign language education should not only be the acquisition of CC but also intercultural language teaching (ICLT) and intercultural competence (ICC). ICC, according to Byram (1997, p. 33 - 4) and Secru (2005b, p.3-4) consists of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. “Knowledge” might include specific culture concepts or culture with a “small c” i.e. words, behaviors, values and symbols that are tied to and have meaning related to a particular cultural frame of reference as well as general culture knowledge, or culture with a big “C” i.e. factual information such as fine arts, literature, cooking, lifestyle, etc. “Skills” includes the ability to learn and interpret and relate cultures. “Attitudes” means openness and tolerance towards other people’s cultures.

The literature concerned with ICLT and ICC and their implementation in the Lebanese context, is scarce if not non-existent. Besides, I have found that most intercultural educational research has been conducted in English-speaking countries e.g. Australia, and /or in FL context such as China or Spain; the lack of research in the Middle East especially in Arabic speaking countries such as Lebanon is another reason for my study. Accordingly, an intercultural approach through language education has become a need in the Lebanese context to engage students and to prepare them for the globalized world where people of different cultural backgrounds increasingly depend on one another.

Because teachers are, according to Secru, Garcia and Prieto (2004), the mediators transferring ICC, I chose to consult them in order to find answers to the questions below. Influenced by Secru (2005b, p. 16-17), four questions drove my enquiry about the attitudes of Lebanese FL teachers towards ICLT or ICC in foreign language education and how their beliefs affect their teaching practice.

1. What are the teachers trying to do when doing their job?

2. What are the teachers’ conceptions of the curricular objectives of English language teaching at a northern Lebanese university?

3. What are the teachers’ perceptions of culture teaching ?

4. How is their teaching time distributed over language teaching and culture teaching?

5. Would the teachers like to devote more time to culture teaching in their English language classes?

Teachers’ answers to the questionnaire would define their positions towards ICLT e.g. teachers who promote ICLT and ICC might be more culturally than linguistically oriented. They may focus more on language teaching (LT) rather than on culture teaching (CT).

In this paper, teachers’ perceptions of ICLT and ICC and the impact of their beliefs on their instructional behavior at UOB were investigated using a questionnaire study approach. The questionnaire survey was based on previous study (Secru et al., 2005). Below, the study design is described briefly as it forms the context for the questionnaire survey. Specifically, the focus is on this data collection technique and data analysis. Finally, the data were analyzed and interpreted, drawing from the findings some implications for further research.

2. The study design

The survey was conducted in the context of a private English – medium university in North Lebanon during the spring semester, 2008. I chose this university because it is my professional context and because it is similar in terms of students, population, teachers and curriculum to other Lebanese universities in the region.

2.1. Sample

The participants who agreed to undertake the questionnaire consisted of 15 English language instructors teaching intensive English language courses, namely English 001, English 002 and English 003. The instructors were not randomly chosen, but conveniently selected. The sample consisted of seven foreigners and eight Lebanese English language instructors; of the instructors, 10 were female and 5 were male.

2.2. Mode of data gathering

Along the lines of writers such as Babbie (2004), Gay and Airasian (2000) Marshall (2004), and Sowell (2001), survey questionnaires are important and effective instruments used in educational research. They allow quantitative or numeric data to be generated in order to answer questions about the opinion of people about some topics or issues. I adopted and adapted section one and three from Secru et al.’s (2005, p. 191-3) survey, which was carried out in 2001 in 7 different countries , namely Belgium, Poland, Spain, Bulgaria, Greece, Sweden and Mexico. The questionnaire would allow me to compare the perceptions of teachers at UOB with those of teachers at other similar Lebanese institutions. Finally, as suggested by Babbie (2004), a questionnaire guarantees anonymity, an important factor that encourages respondents to give honest and frank answers, thus causing less alarm to respondents, yielding a high response rate and allowing researchers to remain detached from participants.

The questionnaire survey I used (see Appendix) focused on ICLT within a university context in order to gain true and quantifiable data. Regarding the questionnaire format, I used a closed question questionnaire with different forms such as scaled and checklist questions. As suggested by Babbie (2004) and Oppenheim (2005), The scaled questions invite respondents to select answers from a series of statements while checklist questions ask respondents to choose one of two (or more) options

The questionnaire consisted of two parts. The first section of the questionnaire was designed to elicit respondents’ profile such as age, nationalities and history of learning. The second section asked for information about teachers’ perceptions of their teaching role, their attitude towards ICC and how this affects their instructional behavior. It comprised 5 sub-questions; two were scaled questions, whereas three were checklist questions (see Appendix ). Scaled questions permit us to get information about phenomena that cannot be obtained from other data gathering tools such as observation. Marshall (2004, p. 132) points out that the format of the questionnaire items makes the interpretation of numerical data easier.

In order to ensure reliability, I tested the adapted questionnaire's internal consistency, as suggested by Oppenheim (2002) and Tuckman (1999), using Cronbach's Alpha , which was 0.7337. The issue of construct validity was also addressed in formulating my questionnaire. Because of the small sample size in the study, i.e. a survey with 15 teachers, the questionnaire was not offered in electronic format but in a paper version. It was given to English teachers working at different educational levels.

3. Data analysis

Having decided on the data gathering tool, systematic procedures to analyze and interpret the data were used, as suggested by Creswell (1998) and Strauss and Corbin (1998). For instance, the data collected was transferred to computer software programs such as SPSS and Microsoft Excel. Then, descriptive statistics that include numbers, describing a group – mean, median, mode etc. (see discussion below) and presented in charts and tables will be used in the following section to measure the central tendency of teachers’ perceptions regarding ICLT/ICC and present the most relevant and important information.

4. Results and discussion

To make data interpretation easier, teachers are grouped together and respondents of the 5 question sets (see Appendix ) are considered as one group. The data collected aimed at answering my research questions, investigating teachers’ aims regarding ICC, their objectives in language teaching, their perceptions of different cultural topics, the percentage of time devoted to CT and teachers’ willingness to teach more culture ( See the following sections). Of the 15 instructors from which verbal consent was obtained, 15 questionnaires were received (100% response rate).

4. 1. Teacher’s perceptions regarding their aims of FLT

Concerned with ICC as an aim in language teaching, question 2.1. which had two parts, asked teachers what they were trying to do when doing their jobs. What characterized the abbreviated set of questions in Table 1 below was that teachers were asked to choose one of two possible choices rather than to make their answers on a Likert scale.

Table 1. Abbreviated list of teachers’ aims

2.1. Teachers’ aim

1. (1)Be on good terms with my students

(2)Fulfill the curricula requirements

2. (1)Impart the skills, knowledge and attitudes

(2)Enthuse my students

3. (1)Further their proficiency in the FL

(2)Prepare them for the future

4. (1)Pass on expert knowledge

(2)Support students who have problems

The general result from the graph below indicates that teachers are more linguistically oriented. Approximately, 87% of the instructors (13 teachers) wanted to fulfill the curricular requirements, to further students’ proficiency in foreign language education and to pass to them their expert knowledge regarding the subject they are teaching. However, I did not expect the equal importance the teachers gave to “skills, knowledge, attitudes” and to “enthuse their students” ( see Figure 1 below).

Figure. 1. Teachers’ aims

Accordingly, adding some follow up open-ended questions would have been useful to get insight into instructors’ teaching aims.

4. 2. Possible objectives of foreign language teaching

After reporting their aims, teachers were asked to express their opinions about the objectives of language teaching. As in Secru et al. (2005), a ranking scale was used in which teachers were asked to rank the eight possible objectives of FLT in order of importance by assigning each objective a number between 1 (the most important) and 8 (the least important). i.e. the nearest to one was the most important and the nearest to 9 was the least important. The questions items were grouped and analyzed in terms of 3 objectives or subscales pertaining to the objectives of ICC e.g. culture, language, and general skills/ learning objective (see Table 3 below).

Table 2. Abbreviated list of possible objectives of FLT

Culture learning objectives

(1) Students’ familiarity with the civilization of TC

(2) Open- mindedness and tolerance towards unfamiliar cultures

(3) Student’s awareness of their identity and culture.

Language learning objectives

(4) Proficiency in reading

(5) Enthuse Students to learn FL(es)

(6) Proficiency in FL for practical responses.

General skills/language skills learning objectives

(7) Other skills in other areas

(8) Skills for learning other FL

Although space does not permit a discussion of each question item, it can be pointed out that those teachers are more in favor of teaching language (with a mean that is nearest to one i.e. 3.33) and general skills (4.29) than culture (4.95) (see Figure 2 below).

Figure 2. Teachers’ objectives of FLT

Put differently, this might be an indication that teachers are more linguistically than culturally oriented.

4. 3. Teachers’ perceptions of possible culture teaching topics

Question 2.3., which is similar to question 2.2. in format, solicited information about teachers’ perceptions of CT in a FLT context because this affects their instructional behavior and /or the implementation of ICC. Culture here is defined in terms of small culture “c” and big culture “C” (see Section 1). Instructors were asked to rank nine possible culture teaching objectives in order of importance regarding three possible culture dimensions addressed in the questionnaire statements, namely: knowledge, attitudinal, and skills objectives described in Table 3 below. These dimensions, as noted earlier in the introduction, represent, according to Byram (1997, p. 34) and Castro and Secru (2005, p. 26) desirable ICC expectations in foreign language education.

Table 3. Abbreviated list of options regarding teachers’ perceptions of possible culture teaching topics

Knowledge dimension

(1) FC history, geography and politics (culture/Culture) (“c”/”C”)

(2) FC daily life and routines

(3) FC values and beliefs (“c”/ “C”)

(4) FC expressions (literature, music, theatre, film, etc.) (“C”)

Attitude skills

(5) Openness and tolerance towards other FC

Skills dimension

(6) Reflection on cultural differences

(7) More understanding of students’ own culture ( “c” / “C”)

(8) Empathy to other C

(9) Coping with intercultural contact situations

The objectives that enjoy the highest support and that are nearest to one are “attitude” (mean score of 3.14). As noted earlier, attitude i.e. Openness and tolerance towards other FC, are synonym if not result to ICLT. The difference between skills (4.6) and knowledge dimensions (4.74) is so small that it could be down to chance i.e. it is not significant. Hence, attitudinal objectives are seen as somewhat more desirable than knowledge or skills objective (see Figure 3 below).

Figure 3. Teachers’ perceptions of CT

Accordingly, the findings of these questions do not corroborate the previous findings which were that teachers focused on LT rather than CT. This might mean that teachers define culture in terms of intercultural skills. They prioritized openness and tolerance towards other cultures then gave importance to teaching culture with both a small “c” and big “C”, but might not be able to integrate culture in their teaching practice due to potential constraints regarding the commonly accepted linguistic goals of LT. This might also mean that teachers did not understand the differences between “C” and “c”. Thus, I should have reworded question 2.3. so that teachers would get a better understanding of culture in ICLT. I should also do a statistical test to see whether differences between “knowledge” and “skills” could be due to chance.

4. 4. The distribution of teaching time over language teaching and culture teaching

In questions 2.4. (see Table 4 below), instructors were asked to tick the option that best corresponds with the average distribution of teaching time over language teaching (LT) and culture teaching (CT).

Table 4. Teaching time distributed over “language teaching” and “culture teaching”?

1. 100% language teaching- 0% culture teaching

2. 80% language teaching - 20% culture teaching

3. 60% language teaching - 40% culture teaching

4. 40% language teaching - 60% culture teaching

5. 20% language teaching - 80% culture teaching

6. 100% integration of language and culture teaching

The general results obtained reveal that teachers wanted to devote more time to LT than to CT. Twelve teachers (80%) picked the second and third option, namely 80%-60% LT, while none of them (0%) opted for “20% LT- 80% CT”. Besides, only one teacher (6.7%) showed interest in total integration of L and CT (see Figure 4 below).

Figure 4. Distribution of teaching time over language teaching (LT) and culture teaching (CT).

It can be argued from the result of question 2.4 that the teachers were more linguistically oriented and did not promote ICLT.

4.5. Teachers’ degree of willingness to devote more time to culture teaching

In the last question, 2.5 (see Table 5 below), instructors were asked to tick the option that best matched their view about their willingness to devote more time to CT. The statements describe teachers’ attitude regarding ICLT and ICC (see Figure 5 below).

Table 5. Willingness to devote more time to “culture teaching” during foreign language teaching classes

1. Yes, very much so

2. Yes, up to a certain extent

3. No, not particularly

4. No, not at all

5. No opinion

More than half of the sample, i.e. 9 teachers (53.33%) said “Yes, to a certain extent”, one (6.67) was non -committal and none of them expressed a total lack of readiness to teach more culture (see Figure 5. below). Accordingly, 9 teachers of the 15 were either enthusiastic, or mildly positive about spending more time on CT. In view of theses findings, there seems to be more scope for change than I thought.

Figure 5. Teachers’ degree of willingness to devote more time to culture teaching

These findings corroborate what instructors said concerning their conceptions of ICLT and the impact of their beliefs on their instructional behavior. These findings would mean that teachers do not want or are unable to promote ICLT. Teachers would be willing to teach more culture than they actually do. However, this belief depends on the extent to which they believe language and culture can be taught in an integrated way. Their willingness to devote more time to CT does not imply more intercultural teaching in classroom. Teachers might like teaching culture but many reasons such as the ones illustrated in Castro and Secru (2005, p.32) i.e. lack of time, lack of suitable materials and curriculum constraints, might hinder this aim. It also depends on what teachers think CT might involve. They might have understood C in a particular way; they might have thought of it as teaching about English food, going to the pub and visiting Buckingham Palace, then their attitude might be different than if they think of it as teaching culture with a small “c”.

These findings have shown that teachers are more linguistically than culturally oriented. Instructors might be familiar with ILT/ or interculturalization of FL education but focus on linguistic skills and define culture in terms of passing on factual information rather than in terms of intercultural skills. Thus, the findings indicate that there is a need to encourage teachers to reconsider their conceptions of and teaching practice regarding ICLT and to contribute to it from a third space perspective in the Lebanese context. Teachers should develop teaching and learning approaches that promote ICLT. i.e. integrate L and C , show openness towards other cultures, focus on different aspects of culture and help learners to construct a third space. This might boost students’ engagement in FL education and help them to meet the needs of the global market.

5. Conclusion

As the world becomes smaller, an intercultural approach through language education has become a requirement in the Lebanese context to engage students and to prepare them for the globalized world where people of different cultural backgrounds increasingly interact and depend on one another.

After making slight modifications, I adapted, developed and administered the questionnaire that was originally devised by Secru et al. (2005) to answer my research questions, and meet my purpose of exploring teachers’ conceptions of ICLT and ICC and how this might affect their teaching practice. I used this method because it is a useful way to look at my research questions in terms of quantity and meet my purpose, but it is only a part of a larger overall project aimed at answering these questions in depth.

The questionnaire helped to address my research question items, but did not explain the reasons behind the answers. A limitation regarding ranking or Thurstone scale, according to Babbie (2004, p. 168), is that “the meaning conveyed by the several items indicating a given variable tends to change over time”. Besides, respondents might want to teach more culture but be too insecure, tired or stressed to do it. Accordingly, Babbie (2004, p. 250) points out that questions of the type in this survey may be used “as a first step in an exploratory sequence of questions”. The questionnaire was very valuable but it needs to be complemented with other modes of data gathering. Thus, I intend to use interviews which are based on a set of topics concerning ICLT and ICC to be discussed in depth.

Finally, to find a solution to the students’ lack of interest in EFL at UOB, in my professional context , further studies are needed to explore students’ conceptions of CT and ICLT and their opinion regarding the integration of ICLT in EL education. To this end, I would carry out interviews and organize focus group discussions where students express themselves freely and discuss the integration of ICLT in FL education to see if it would promote their engagement and interest in FL learning.

Appendix 1

This Questionnaire is an adaptation from Secru et al. (2005)

Section 1: Personal Data

1. Gender:

Male

Female

2. What is your nationality?

Lebanese

Native speaker

3. How long have you been teaching foreign languages

1) 1 to 3 years

2) 3 to 6 years

3) 6 to 9 years

4) More than 9 years

Section 2: You as a teacher

2.1. What do you try to do as a teacher? (For every pair of statements please tick the statement that best matches your view regarding your teaching)

1) (1) I want to be on good terms with my students

(2) I want to fulfill the curricula requirements for my subject

2) (1) I try to impart to my students the skills, knowledge and attitudes which they will need in life

(2) I try to enthuse my students for my subject

3) (1) I try to impart to my students the skills, knowledge and attitudes they will need to further their proficiency in the foreign language they are learning

(2) I try to coach my students on their way to adulthood

4) (1) I want to pass on expert knowledge regarding my subject to my students

(2) I want to support my students when they have personal problems

2.2. How do you perceive the objectives of foreign language teaching? (please rank them in order of importance through assigning each objective a number between 1 and 8)

1) Enthuse my students for learning foreign languages

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2) Promote my students’ familiarity with the culture, the civilization of the countries where the language which they are learning is spoken

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

3) Assist my students to acquire a level of proficiency in the foreign language that will allow them to read literary works in the foreign language

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

4) Assist my students to acquire skills that will be useful in other subject areas and in live (such as memorize, summarize, put into words, formulate accurately, give a presentation, etc…)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

5) Promote the acquisition of an open mind and a positive disposition towards unfamiliar cultures

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

6) Promote the acquisition of learning skills that will be useful for learning other foreign languages

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

7) Promote the acquisition of a level of proficiency in the foreign language that will allow the learners to use foreign language for practical purposes

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

8) Assist my pupils in developing a better understanding in their own identity and culture

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2.3. What do you understand by culture teaching in a foreign language teaching context? (Please rank them in order of importance through assigning each objective a number between 1 and 9)

1) Provide information about the history, geography and political conditions of the foreign cultures

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2) Provide information about daily life and routines

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3) Provide information about shared values and beliefs

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4) Provide experiences with a rich variety of cultural expressions (literature, music, theatre, film, etc…)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5) Develop attitudes of openness and tolerance towards other people and cultures

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

6) Promote reflection on cultural differences

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

7) Promote increased understanding of students’ own culture

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

8) Promote the ability to empathize with people living in other culture

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

9) Promote the ability to handle intercultural contact situations

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2.4. How is your teaching time distributed over “language teaching” and “culture teaching”? (Please tick one of the 5 options that best corresponds with the average distribution of teaching time over language teaching and culture teaching)

1. 100% language teaching- 0% culture teaching

2. 80% language teaching - 20% culture teaching

3. 60% language teaching - 40% culture teaching

4. 40% language teaching - 60% culture teaching

5. 20% language teaching - 80% culture teaching

6. 100% integration of language and culture teaching

2.5. Would you like to devote more time to “culture teaching” during your foreign language teaching classes. (Please tick one of the 5 options that best matches your opinion)

1. Yes, very much so

2. Yes, up to a certain extent

3. No, not particularly

4. No, not at all

5. No opinion

References

Babbie, E. (2004). The practice of social research. (10^th ed). Australia: Thomson, Wadsworth.

Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence.

Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.

Castro, P & Secru, L. (2005). Objectives of foreign language teaching Time. In Secru et al. Foreign language teachers and intercultural competence: an intercultural investigation. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD (19-38).

Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Damen, L. (1987). Culture learning: The fifth dimension in the language classroom.

Reading, Massachusetts: Wddison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Gay, L. R. & Airasian, P. (2000). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Hatoss, A. (2004). A model for evaluating textbooks. Babel, 39 (2), 25-32.

Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Liddicoat, J. (2003). Teaching languages for intercultural communication. 19 (1), 1-4. Berkeley Language Centre Newsletter.

Liddicoat, J., Scarino, A., Papademetre, L. & Kholer, M. (2003). Report on

intercultural language learning. Canberra: Commonwealth Department

of Education, Science and Teaching RL.

Lo Bianco, J., C. Crozet & A. J. Liddicoat . (eds) (1999). Striving for the third place: Intercultural competence through language education. Canberra, Language Australia.

Marshall, G. (2004). The purpose, design and administration of a questionnaire for data collection. Radiography 11, 131-136.

Oppenheim, A. N. (2002). Questionnaire design and attitude measurement. London: Heinemann.

Risager, K. (2005). Foreword. In Secru et al. Foreign language teachers and intercultural competence: an intercultural investigation (p. vii). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.

Secru, L. (2005a).The foreign language and intercultural competence teacher. In Secru et al. Foreign language teachers and intercultural competence: an intercultural investigation (pp.130-159). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.

Secru, L. (2005b). Teaching foreign languages in an intercultural world. In Secru et al. Foreign language teachers and intercultural competence: an intercultural investigation (pp. 1-18). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.

Secru, L., Bandura, E., Castro, P., Davcheva, L., Laskaridou, C., LundgrenU., et al. (2005). Foreign language teachers and intercultural competence: an intercultural investigation. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.

Secru, L., García, M.C. & Castro, P. (2004). “Culture teaching in foreign language education: EFL teachers in Spain as cultural mediators”. PortaLinguarum, 1, 85- 102.

Seelye, H. N. (1993). Teaching culture strategies for intercultural communication. Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Publishing Group.

Sowell, E. J. (2001). Educational research: An integrative introduction. Boston: Mc Graw-Hill.

Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. (2^nded.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Tuckman, B. W. (1999). Conducting educational research. (5^thed.). Australia: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Weaver, G., R. (1986). Understanding and coping with cross-cultural adjustment stress. In R. M. Paige (Ed.), Cross-Cultural orientation, new conceptualizations and applications. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Retrieved October 17, 2007, from the http://www.hsp.org/files/ culturaliceberg2.pdf

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Gareth Dewar - Pearson

Getting More out of Coursebook

Grammar Exercises (workshop)

ABSTRACT

Coursebooks and, as a result, English classes, see a greater focus upon skills than some years ago. Yet, despite this, coursebooks are still awash with traditional grammar-practice exercises: gap-fill, question formation, sentence completion, and so on. While the grammar taught through these exercises is of crucial importance, the exercises themselves can be dull and repetitive for student and teacher. In this interactive workshop we will look at some traditional (though still current) grammar exercise types, and explore ways in which we can make them more interesting and productive for both learner and teacher. Examples will be taken from popular current primary and secondary-level coursebooks.

PAPER

The session will start with a brief discussion on the subject of the importance or otherwise of grammar as part of the language learning process. We will consider both teacher and student attitudes to grammar and raise the possibility that learning and teaching grammar can be both fun and useful. We will discuss the relationship between grammar and skills and attempt to show that these two aspects of language teaching and learning can and should be more closely integrated than they often are in popular published ELT materials.

We will move on to an analysis of grammar activities taken from a selection of current ELT coursebooks. We will consider to what extent these activities will benefit the language learning process. If we decide that an activity is not perfectly suited to its purpose we will consider what steps we can take to enhance its usefulness as part of the learning process. To this end we will be considering to what extent it is possible to modify the coursebook. We will consider time implications: teachers are extremely busy and we do not wish to load them down with extra, unnecessary work. We will consider assessment implications and other issues that can arise when teachers move away from the set materials.

Finally, a series of practical grammar-based activities will be demonstrated. This part of the workshop will be interactive and participants will try out and evaluate activities for themselves, individually, in pairs and in groups.

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Intisar Ibrahim al – Samarrai - Al Isra' Private University

Using Effective Pedagogical Techniques to Help Learners of a Second Language

Develop Language Skills in Mastery of the Target Language (presentation)

ABSTRACT

The paper is an attempt to investigate the various means of developing learners capacity in language skills .

It consists of three sections .

The first is introductory in that it gives an initial idea of the whole topic .

The second elaborates the different strategies ,devices and means of attaining that objective .

The third is a conclusion summarizing the main items of the paper , followed bya bibliography of the references

PAPER

Table of Contents

Page

Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------2

1.1 Objective --------------------------------------------------------------------------3

1.2 Procedure -------------------------------------------------------------------------3

2. Cognition and learners --------------------------------------------------------------- 3 2.1 Learners as thinking Beings -------------------------------------------------- 4

2.2 Learning strategies ----------------------------------------------------------- 4

2.3 Stages of skill acquisition ----------------------------------------------------- 6

2.4 Learner strategies and learner Readiness ------------------------------------ 9

3. Developing the skills of individuals (linguistic Skills) -------------------------- 9

3.1 Learning from instruction --------------------------------------------------- 10

3.2 Developing learners Pronunciation and Spelling at the same time. 11

3.2.1deas for Improving Learners Pronunciation -------------------- 11

3.2.2 Pronunciation Spelling Correspondence: Some Teaching

Aids ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12

3.3 Ideas for Vocabulary Activities -------------------------------------------- 12

3.3.1 Brainstorming round an idea ------------------------------------- 13

3.4 Developing Learner's Grammar --------------------------------------------14

3.4.1 Grammar Practice Activities --------------------------------------15

3.4.2 Types of grammar practice from accuracy to fluency -------- 15

4. Developing Learner's Language Skills -------------------------------------------16

4.1 Developing listening ---------------------------------------------------------16

4.2 Developing Speaking ------------------------------------------------------- 17

4.3 Developing Reading -------------------------------------------------------- 17

4.4 Developing Writing --------------------------------------------------------- 21

4.4.1 Tasks that stimulate writing ---------------------------------------21

5. Conclusions --------------------------------------------------------------------------23

6. Recommendations ------------------------------------------------------------------ 24

7. Suggestions ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24

8. Bibliography --------------------------------------------------------------------- 25/26

Introduction:

Improving and developing learners' language skills in mastery of the target language and of learning about the target culture are the main goals of the teaching / learning process.

This paper is designed to explore some effective Pedagogical techniques as teaching/ learning strategies and the ways in which they can be used and modified in order to achieve the above goals.

Learning strategies can be defined as "the special thoughts or behavior that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn or retain new information" (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990:1). The goal of learning strategies is to help students to consciously control how they learn so that they can be efficient, motivated and independent language learners. This can be achieved by using certain teaching pedagogical strategies taken from effective methods and making use of technical devices that motivate learners and make them interested to learn.

Students who think and work strategically are more motivated to learn and have a higher sense of self confidence in their own learning ability. Moreover, and may be more necessarily, they need to be aware of the strategies that lead to their success. This will help learners overcome the difficulties and obstacles they face in communication with others and in mastering language skills.

As far as the researcher knows, from her experience as a specialist in language teaching for more than thirty five years for different types and levels of learners of secondary schools and colleges, there are no appropriate language rooms, computer labs are rarely used by teachers of English, and software and internet are not utilized. That is to say, technology is not actually applied for the teaching of English. That is why the researcher is going to suggest ways of teaching language skills in the light of technology.

1.1 Objective

The aim of this paper is to suggest ideas, activities and strategies to develop learners' capacity in second language learning in the four language skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing and at the three language levels: pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar using certain technical pedagogical devices.

1.2 Procedure

In order to achieve the above objectives the following procedures will be followed in this study:

1- Surveying the cognitive approach.

2- Explaining learning strategies on the theoretical and practical bases.

3- Suggesting certain ideas, activities and pedagogical strategies to be used in language rooms and showing the importance of applying technology in the teaching of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar in order to develop learners' capacity in mastering the four skills of language mentioned above.

2. Cognition and learners :

Cognition refers to "all the processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used…".(Rivers, 1983:96). So it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do, that "every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon". ( Neisser, 1967:4).

2.1. Learners as Thinking Beings:

Awareness of one's own thinking process is generally referred to as metacognition or metacognitive awareness (Skehan, 1988:161). According to the cognitive theory, the learner is an active processor of information, an example of this is learning and using a rule, which requires learners to apply their mental powers in order to distill a generative rule from the mass of data presented, and to analyze the situation where it can be applied.

2.2 Learning Strategies:

Learning can be facilitated through learning strategies by which it becomes the intended goal of the learner. Here, the learner will be aware of what is going on around him. These strategies will "effect the learner's motivational or affective state, or the way in which the learner selects, acquires, organizes or integrates new knowledge" (Weinstein and Mayer, 1986:315).

Learning strategies include focusing on certain aspects of information, analyzing and monitoring information during acquisition, synthesizing and organizing information during the encoding process, evaluating the learning when it is complete or finding out the degree of success in language acquisition in real communication. Thus, strategies may have an affective or conceptual basis and may influence the learning of vocabulary items, grammar, and pronunciation as well as comprehending reading passages and using language in different situations.

Learning strategies have been differentiated into three categories depending on the level or type of processing involved (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990:44 and Brown, 1987:91-95).

(A) Metacognitive strategies may include the following:

1. Selective attention in which the learner focuses on special aspects of the learning task, as planning to listen for key words or phrases.

2. Planning for the organization of either written or spoken discourse.

3. Monitoring or reviewing attention to task, monitoring comprehension for information that should be remembered, or monitoring production while it is occurring.

4. Evaluating or checking comprehension after completion of a receptive language activity, or evaluating language production after it has taken place.

(B) Cognitive strategies operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning. These strategies are helpful to develop language skills especially listening comprehension. They are the following:

1. Rehearsal, or repeating the names of items or objects that have been heard.

2. Organization, or grouping and classifying words, terminology or concepts according to their semantic or syntactic attributes.

3. Inferencing, or using information in oral text to guess meaning of new linguistic items, predict outcomes, or complete missing parts.

4. Summarizing, or intermittently synthesizing what one has heard to ensure the information has been retained.

5. Deduction, or applying rules to understand language.

6. Imagery, or using visual image (either generated or actual) to understand and remember new verbal information.

7. Transfer, or using known linguistic information to facilitate a new learning task.

8. Elaboration, linking ideas contained in new information or integrating new ideas with known information (elaboration may be a general category for other strategies, such as imagery, summarization, transfer, and deduction).

(C) Social/affective strategies which involve interaction with another person as well as ideational control over affect. The main useful strategies are:

1. Cooperation, or working with peers to solve a problem, pool information, check notes, or get feedback on a learning activity.

2. Questioning for clarification, or eliciting from a teacher or peer additional explanation, rephrasing, or examples.

3. Self-talk or using mental control to assure oneself that a learning activity will be successful or to reduce anxiety about a task. (ibid.: 45)

Developing learners' capacity in second language acquisition cannot be understood completely without description of interaction between language & cognition. The cognitive theories give a descriptive view of language comprehension which indicates that comprehension of both oral and written texts is an active, constructive process that progresses from intentional and encoding processes through utilization of the meaning interpreted. Language production is seen as involving selection and meaning. Learning strategies are also viewed in cognitive theory as complex cognitive skills (ibid). from this point of view the researcher elaborates certain devices and techniques that help learners develop their abilities in second language.

2.3 Stages of Skills Acquisition:

Anderson (1980:50) has developed three stages of skill acquisition (cognitive, associative and autonomous). These stages have important implications both for understanding the process of second language acquisition and for developing instructional approaches and certain strategies that can be used to develop learners' capacities in language learning with an emphasis on the learner's awareness of the learning process. During the cognitive stage, the second language learner engages in conscious mental activity in order to find meaning in the new language. This conscious mental activity may focus on different aspects of the second language depending on the context of learning. The learner's attention may focus on the functional use of language. In a classroom setting the learner's attention may be directed by the teacher to the formal aspects of the language, to its sound system, to vocabulary to functional use of language chunks in communicative activities or to a combination to these aspect of language (Ventriglia, 1982:78).

In the second or associative stage of skill learning, learners begin to develop sufficient familiarity with the knowledge acquired in the first stage so that it can be used procedurally.

In the third stage of language learning, according to Anderson (ibid.), the learner is able to use the language for functional purposes, whether; these are social, academic or technical. Because language can be processed the learner is able to go through intensive practice and able to process information at the same time that language is in use. Being aware of using language in real situation and exposing learners to real participation pushes them forward to use the foreign language with confidence especially when they get an encouraging feedback.

This process can be shown very clearly in the following learning cycle:

Oval: Learner
wants to
learn

Oval: Learner's competence
develops

Positive learning cycle after cognitive / affective interplay

(after Hutchinson and Waters 1987:47)

2.4 Learner strategies and Learner Readiness:

The first major development was the publication of the ' Good language learners' study (Naiman et al., 1975) which reported on semi-structured interview with a number of very successful language learners. These interviews revealed that such learners attributed their learning success to the use of five general strategies.

an active learning approach,
realization of language as a system,
realization of language as a means of communication,
handling of effective demand, and
monitoring of progress.

3. Developing the Skills of Individuals (Linguistic Skills):

What is needed in the language teaching is the sort of balanced programme which will maximize the progress of learners in second language. Learners must have a system which remains open to noticing and to change while at the same time making some gains in terms of fluency and real time language processing (Skehan, 1998:91).

In order to develop the language learning skills and achievement of individuals, teachers have to direct what specific students do and also raise consciousness within the group regarding the individual students themselves. Students must be engaged with communicative activities. Such activities "could be used to develop learners' capacities to mobilize resources and existing knowledge so that the activity could be done better " (ibid. : 276).

Role-plays and mini real-world tasks can draw learners into structured opportunities to engage a planning capacity, giving them the chance to analyze problems, assess their own strengths and weaknesses, develop methods of self-management, plan, and set appropriate goals.

Bridging and lead – in activities such as the use of simulation and small projects are an excellent area to build in strategy training, since the degree of teacher control is greater. They provide focused and systematic opportunities to use metacognitive strategies.

Giving a short talk, Haines (1989: 277) provides ample scope to help learners analyze problem, work out that their strengths and weaknesses are, how the talk could be planned, and what the speaker aims to accomplish with the talk.

3.1. Learning from Instruction:

In the classroom it is simply more efficient to select and grade the language to be learnt so that learners waste a minimum time on frustrating in comprehension and have plenty of opportunities to practice what they know and use it as a jump-off point for the learning of new language.

Linguists have broken language down into three main components: the phonology or sound system of the language, the lexis, or the words or phrases which express concepts, and the structure or the way words or bits of words are strung together to make acceptable sentences or phrases. These are defined as pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar.

A language course may be based on more ' communicative' categories of topic, situation, notion and function. The most effective teaching and learning result from a combination of them all in systematic but flexible programme in which topics and situations provide a context for the teaching of new words and structures and learned in order to express notions or functions.

3.2 Developing Learners' Pronunciation and Spelling at the Same Time

This can be achieved by giving chance to learners to a brief recording, for some minutes, of a speaker of the language taught, writing down a sentence from the recording using conventional spelling, and putting in indications of rising and falling intonation and stress. In case of working with groups, the teacher can compare results with each other. Learners can be got to perceive by requesting imitation, or seeing if they can distinguish between minimal pairs (such as ship/sheep, man/men, thick/tick, see Gimson, 1978) or by contrasting acceptable with unacceptable pronunciation through recording or live demonstration.

3.2.1 Ideas for Improving Learners' Pronunciation:

· imitation of teacher or recorded model of sounds, words and sentences.

· Recording of learner speech, contrasted with native model.

· Systematic explanation and instruction (including details of the structure and movement of parts of the mouth).

· Imitation drills: repetition of sounds, words and sentences.

· learning and performing dialogues.

· jazz chants.

· tongue twisters.

· self-correction through listening to recordings of own speech.

(see Graham, 1978)

3.2.2 Pronunciation – Spelling Correspondence : Some Teaching Aids:

· Dictation of random lists of words that have similar spelling problems of complete sentences, or half-sentences to be completed.

· Reading aloud of syllables, words, phrases, sentences.

· Discrimination: prepare a set of 'minimal pairs' – pairs of words which differ from each other in one sound-letter combination (such as dip-deep in English), either asking learners to read them aloud, taking care to discriminate or asking them to discuss the differences in pronunciation and meaning.

· Predication (1): providing a set of letter combinations which are parts of words the learners know. How would the learners expect them to be pronounced? (Then reveling the full word).

· Predication (2): dictating a set of words in the target language which the learners do not know yet, but whose spelling accords with rules. Can they spell them? (Then revealing meanings). (Ur,2002: 58)

3.3 Ideas for Vocabulary Activities:

A newer second language teaching methodology through reading and story telling, has taken the language teaching world by storm because it addresses many of the challenges facing the world language teaching profession. This technique helps students communicate in the target language due to the emphasis on communicative skills rather than grammar. Students experience less grammar frustration and more success with communication, and the motivation from that success encourages them to continue in the language.

This technique is based on Stephen Krashen's theory of comprehensible input in which the learner gets to internalize the new vocabulary. He will also be given the structure of the target language and hear it over and over before the language starts to become internalized. It is also an implementation of the "Language Acquisition Device" of Chomsky in which the teacher provides a pre-written story with the opportunity to point out grammatical structures. The teacher makes use of magazine pictures as prompt. Such pictures are busy with activity and characters. They can provide room for interpretation and enough material for creating a story with some plot and character development. (ibid).

3.3.1 Brainstorming Round an Idea:

Another excellent way of enlivening language learning and widening the scope of vocabulary in learners is to have students identify body parts, furniture, clothing or other things found in the environment or in nature for example. The teacher writes a single word in the centre of the board and asks students to brain storm all the words they can think of that are connected with it. Every item that is suggested is written up on the board with a line connecting it to the original word, so that the end result in a 'sun-ray' effect for example the word tree might produce something like the sketch below: (Ur, 2002: 68-69).

3.4 Developing Learner's Grammar:

It is essential to know how to present the structure's form and meaning in a way that is clear, simple, accurate and helpful. Here are some guidelines on presenting and explaining a new grammatical structure:

1. A good presentation should include both oral and written forms, and both form and meaning.

2. It is quite necessary to provide learners with plenty of contextualized examples of the structure and make them understand them. Visual materials on the screen or OHP can also contribute to understanding.

3. Explanation should cover the great majority of instances learners are likely to encounter, obvious exceptions should be noted, but too much detail may only confuse. As a rule, a simple generalization is more helpful to learners than a detailed grammar book definition.

4. Explicit rules like grammatical terminology are more helpful to older or more analytically-minded learners. As regards inductive or deductive methods. The teacher is to decide which is more effective depending on the situation. If the learners can perceive and define the rules themselves quickly and easily, then let them do so. But if they find this difficult for them, it is better to provide them with information they need.

3.4.1 Grammar Practice Activities:

One of the jobs of teachers is to help students make a 'leap' from form-focussed accuracy work to fluent production by providing a 'bridge': a variety of practice activities that familiarize them with the structure in context give practice both in form and communicative meaning.

3.4.2 Types of Grammar Practice from Accuracy to Fluency:

1- Awareness:

After the learners have been introduced to the structure, they are given opportunity to encounter it within some kind of discourse, and do a task that focusses their attention on its form and meaning. Example: learners are given extracts from newspaper articles and asked to underline all the examples of the past tense that they can find.

2- Controlled Drills:

Learners produce examples of the structure: These examples are predetermined by the teacher or textbook and have to conform to very clear closed-ended cues.

Example: Write or say statements about John modeled on the following example: John drinks tea he doesn’t drink coffee.

a) Like: ice cream\cake.

b) Speak: English\Italian.

c) Enjoy: playing football\ playing chess.

3- Guided Meaningful Practice:

Learners form sentences of their own according to a set pattern, but exactly what vocabulary they use is up to them.

Example: Practising conditional clauses, learners are given the cue 'If I had a million dollars' and suggest in speech or writing, what they would do.

4-(Structure - based) free sentences composition or situational cue:

Learners are given certain structures or situational cues and invited to compose their own responses, they are directed to use the structure.

Example: A picture showing a number of people doing different things is shown to the class, they describe it using appropriate tense.

( Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973:249, and Ur, 2002:75-88)

4- Developing Learners' Language Skills:

4.1. Developing Listening:

The object of listening comprehension practice in the classroom is that students should learn to function successfully in real life listening situations.

A useful task of real life listening situation is to make a list of as many situations as a teacher can think of where people are listening to other people in their own mother tongue, situations such as interviews, instructions, radio news, theatre show, shopping, story-telling, etc.

Providing the learners with some ideas of what they are going to hear and what they are asked to do with it helps them to succeed in the takes as well as raises their motivation and interest. A visual focus can often provide this, for example, if the task involves making a picture, diagram or map or even a written text, this will make the learners have something to look at that is linked to what is being said.

Course materials must include cassettes of listening texts corresponding to listening tasks in the students' book. The teacher can prepare many supplementary activities of his own to arouse interest in learners to make the task successful.

4.2 Developing speaking:

A successful speaking activity is the activity in which learners talk a lot. All of them must get a chance to speak and contributions are fairly evenly distributed. Motivation must be high in order to make learners eager to speak. As for language, it must be of an acceptable level so that learners express themselves by Utterances that are easy, comprehensible to each other, and of an acceptable level of language accuracy. In practice the teacher can use group work and base the activities on easy language. He can also make a careful choice of topic and give some instruction or training in discussion skills.

Learners must always speak the target language and this can be done by making a topic-centered discussion. The task is to be good- oriented. It is often enhanced if there is some kind of visual focus to base the talking on. The teacher can use the (OHP) to make discussion activities. The learner can describe a picture difference, talk about things in common or solve a problem.

4.3 Developing Reading:

Reading skills need to be fostered so that learners can deal efficiently, quickly, appropriately and skillfully. (Silberstein, 1994:43 and Grellet, 2002:20) suggests a model reading lesson in which learners discuss a text in advance to provide a context for reading and to develop expectations about what they are required to find. Often students will preview a text typing to identify its overall organization and to clues to content and points of view. When students read they usually do so with a particular goal in mind. Such goals will help determine the strategies with which to approach a text and provide the road map for helping students to become efficient readers.

Urquhart and Weir (1998:179) consider cognitive strategies as the more familiar mental processes that enable us to read ranging from working out the meaning of words in context through skimming a text quickly to extract a gist. Metacognitive strategies, on the other hand, are mainly concerned with thinking about the reading experience. They include "an ability to manage and regulate consciously the use of appropriate learning strategies for different situations. They involve an awareness of one's own mental processes and an ability to reflect on how one learns in other words, knowing about one's knowing". (Williams and Burdan, 1997: 148).

Scholars and specialists in reading and reading instruction have enriched the literature in this filed with their contributions for specific teaching techniques that have found their way to application in many reading classrooms. Here are some of these techniques:

1. Think and read strategy

This study-reading strategy helps the learner to be more thoughtful in his reading. The teacher may tell the learner to do the following:

· Think before reading…

- Ask yourself what you already know about the topic.

- Skim over the text .

· Pause during reading..

- Write out questions, definitions and important things you need to remember.

- Read different parts a loud. Then continue reading.

- To discover the definition of a word you don't know, use context clues ,a dictionary, or a glossary or ask someone.

· Reflect after reading …

- Tell yourself what you learned.

- Write a list of things you want to remember.

- Write a summary of your reading.

2. KWL: This is good study-reading strategy to use when you already know something about the topic. KWL stands for what I 'Know', what I 'Want' to know and what I 'Learned'. (Sebranet, et al. 1999:320-231)

3. The four "I" s: This technique is one way of sharing responsibility within the class. The Four "I" s stand for:

- Involvement

- Interaction

- Individualization, and

- Independence

What is required from the instruction is to allow learners to consult each other, then they interact by introducing pair and group work. Also each person must be allowed to be one individual and work to contribute in his own manner. Independence results from the teacher allowing students to learn in their own ways rather than controlling them through teaching (Dudley Evans and S John, 2000: 200).

4. The "Deep-end strategy" technique:

This strategy is an advanced version of the PPP (present, practice, perform ) tradition of EFL. The PPP technique can work effectively for beginners to intermediate learners. The deep-end strategy is to perform taking performance as its strategy point (ibid. : 190).

5. The "semantic mapping" technique:

This technique allows students the freedom to present a hierarchy of ideas in a diagram format that is uniquely theirs. Students can categorize their associations on a topic before reading. On the other hand they can develop post-reading maps the reflect the actual association and information found in the text (Silberstien, 1994:49-52) (see Figure 3 below).

(After Silberstein, 1994: 50)

4.4 Developing Writing:

The objective of the teaching of writing in a foreign language is to get learners to acquire the abilities and skills they need to produce a range of different kinds of written texts similar to those an educated person would be expected to be able to produce in their own.

The purpose of writing is the expression of ideas, the conveying of a message to the reader, so the ideas should be seen as the most important aspect of the writing. On the other hand, the writer needs also to pay some attention to formal aspects: neat handwriting, correct spelling and punctuation, identifying the various punctuation marks and showing how each is used and also covering the parts of speech and demonstrating their uses, as well as, the basic rule of grammar and careful selection of vocabulary. This is because much higher standards of language are normally demanded in writing than in speech-more careful construction, more precise and varied vocabulary, and more corrections of expression in general. (Ur, 2002: 163 and Field, M. 2007:11). This can be very useful when it is put into practice by means of colorful figures shown on a screen inside the lecture room.

4.4.1 Tasks that stimulate writing:

To encourage learners for good writing the teacher must select activities that are motivating, simulating and interesting, i.e. activities that suit their level. Learners may find some sort of interest when they write on subjects that are relevant to their needs. Learners may write on subjects such as:

Narrative:

Narrative is a fairly interesting task that can be adapted for most levels. It does depend on preparation of suitable picture cut from magazines or shown on screens.

Personal story:

Students are motivates to write about personal experience؛ also, each can write at his or her own level of proficiency. The teacher can facilitate this task by presenting a brief sample of a personal story accompanied by picture using the overhead projector.

Description:

Another interesting task is to describe a view. This can be done at various levels of proficiency. Students can be asked to recall and describe a view they are familiar with. They can also be asked to describe someone, describe people or a famous place. This can be done by looking at a certain picture accompanied by certain clues or words to be used in such topics and this can be shown on a screen with colours. The teacher may select and prepare a suitable piece of music to stimulate the imagination of students.

Answering a letter:

This is usually a highly motivating and fairly advanced task, with great interest to learners. The teacher may ask all the students to write letters of complaint, and later answer each other's letters. Some pre-teaching of conventional letters formalities and layout in the target language is necessary.

Students also need to be taught how to write letters about job application and perhaps some details are to be given about the exact job being applied for.

News report:

This is clear "model-imitation" writing which is very useful. It may be more interesting if it is a report of a genuine local event.

Some writing activities:

Students can be asked to:

- Write about a narrative based on a picture or series of pictures.

- Describe and occasion when they were disappointed (or afraid, surprised, relived…).

- Look out of the window, and describe the view they see.

- Describe someone they know very well.

- Write an answer to (given) letters of complaint.

- Write a letter applying for a job as baby sitter, stating their qualification for the job.

- Read a newspaper article reporting a place of news, and notice the kind of information provided. Write a similar article of their own on an imaginary event.

(Ur, 2002: 160-5)

All this can be accompanied by different devices such as an overhead projector or a viewer to facilitate the task and make it more interesting.

5. Conclusions

In the light of the points raised and discussed in this paper, the following conclusions are drawn:

1. Language learning is enhanced when learners cognitively think of what and how they learn.

2. The best teaching activities are those that simulate learners' use of effective learning strategies.

3. Efficient learning takes place when learning strategies are accompanied with suitable technical devices.

4. Developing learners' capacity in language skills and aspects is best achieved by motivating them to learn through the use of teaching aids and technological devices.

6. Recommendations

The following recommendations are introduced:

1. Encouraging language learners to activate and use their learning strategies.

2. Familiarizing language teachers with technical aids and encouraging them to use these in their teaching.

3. Providing language classrooms with modern technical aids.

4. Supplying language teaching curricula with suitable activities that help learners develop their capacity in language learning.

7. Suggestions:

The following suggestions for further students are put forward:

1. A study to investigate the learning strategies used by Iraqi EFL learners.

2. An experimental study to examine the effect of combining the use of learning strategies and technical devices in developing learners' capacity in one of the language skills.

3. A study to develop the cognitive approach in each of the three language levels: pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.

Bibliography

v Anderson, J. R. (1980). Cognitive Psychology and its implication. Sanfracisco: Freeman.

v Brown, H. Douglas (1987). Principles of language learning and Teaching. Second edition, Englewood cliff: Prentice – Hall. Inc.

v Dndley-Evans, Tony and Maggie Jo. St. John (2000) Developments in English for Specific Purposes. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity press.

v Field, Marion. (2007). Improve your written English 4edittion U.K How to Books.

v Gismon, A.C. (1978). A Practical Course of English Pronunciation, London: Edward Arnold.

v Grellet, Francoise (2002). Developing Reading Skills, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity press.

v Haines, S. (1989). Projects for the EFL Classroom. London: Nelson.

v Hutchinson, Tom and Allan Waters (1987) English for specific purpose: A learning centered Approach. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity press.

v Naiman, N. Frohlich, M., Stern, H. H. and Todesco, A. (1978). The Good language learner. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.

v Neiseer, U. (1967). Cognitive Psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

v O'Malley, J. Michaeal and Anna UhlChamot. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second language Acquisition. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity press.

v Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. (1973). A University Grammar of English, London: Longman.

v Rivers, Wilga, M. (1983) Communicating Naturally in a second language Theory and Practice in language teachings. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity press.

v Sebranek, P., Dave Kemper and Verne Meyer (1990). Write Source 2000. Massachusetts. Great Source Education Group, lnc.

v Skehan, Peter. (1998). A Cognitive Approach to language learning, Oxford University Press.

v Ur, Penny, (2002) A course in Language Teaching. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity press.

v Urquhort, Sandy & Cyril Weirl( 1998). Reading In A second language: Process Product and Practice, London: Longman.

v Ventriglia, L. (1982). Conversations with Miguel and Maria: How Children learn a second language. Rowley, Mass: Addsion Wesley.

v Weinstein, C.E. and Mayer, R.E (1986). The Teaching of Learning Strategies. 3^rd. New York: Macmillan.

v William, M. and R. l. Burden (1997). Psychology for Language Teachers: A social Constructivist Approach,Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity press.

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David Sallay – Qatar Univerisy

Teaching Students to Enter University Academic Culture (workshop)

ABSTRACT

Incoming university students frequently struggle to cross the boundary into university academic culture, especially when having to enter that culture using the English language. They come to class unprepared, frequently plagiarize, and generally do not meet academic expectations. Those teaching English for Academic Purposes need to help their students not just learn language, but academic culture as well, which similar to learning a foreign culture, can also be taught in the classroom. This workshop will consist of a literature review of how foreign culture is taught and apply those ideas to teaching academic culture in an ELT context. The first section will look at the many different ways culture is defined in foreign language teaching, and then apply them to defining academic culture. Largely using the 3 P’s definition of culture, the following section will involve audience participation and discussion where examples of different materials that can be used to teach academic culture will be given, including realia, literature, video, and pictures or slides. Some of these materials will be designed specifically for academic purposes, whereas others will be originally designed for other reasons, such as films or books for entertainment, but will be applied to our purposes. Participants will walk away with a variety of activities using different genres of materials that could then be applied to meet their classroom needs and help their students cross the boundary into university academic culture. Since this presentation is intended for those teaching future university students, it will be of greatest interest to teachers of secondary schools, academic bridge programs, or first-year university courses.

PAPER

We learn a foreign language in order to enter some aspect of the culture or community that speaks that language. This may be for integrative purposes, where the learner wants to become a member of the day to day culture of the language or for instrumental purposes, where the learner wants to enter a specific aspect of the culture to fulfill a need. But no matter what, entering some aspect of the target culture and learning the language are inherently connected. At the university level, instructors teach English for Academic Purposes (EAP), and thus should be preparing students to enter university academic culture.

English in academic culture differs from general English in many ways. For example, vocabulary used in academia tends to be more specific and specialized than quotidian language. The writing process to compose an essay is more involved than writing a letter or email to a friend, requiring brainstorming, editing, multiple drafts, and revision. Language students spend most of their time learning general English, and then are suddenly asked to do more upon entering higher education. Clearly, just the same as when a student travels to a new country and experiences culture shock, attending the university can prove equally bewildering. As such, it is important for instructors to teach the target culture—academic culture.

Whereas teaching culture is frequently discussed in TESOL journals, academic culture is rarely defined or elaborated on. To reconcile the two, this essay will review what the literature says about teaching culture and apply it to teaching academic culture.

Throughout the history of language teaching many different definitions of culture have been put forward. Perhaps the best known of these are big “C”/little “c” (which defines culture by its arts produced and day to day life respectively) and the 3 P’s (which consists of products, practices, and perspectives). Lesser known are non-standard definitions, which reject these definitions as they ignore inter-cultural infiltration, individuals, marginalized groups, and power dynamics (Atkinson, 1999). As such, it might be most worthwhile when considering these definitions to define culture in terms of the relationship between individuals and society as a whole. The individuals who help shape university academic culture may include students, teaching assistants, lecturers, professors, researchers, and administrative staff. The university equivalent of society may consist of departments and academic units, the entire university administration, government ministries, multi-national organizations such as UNESCO that help define policy, local business, testing organizations such as ETS, and society as a whole. In short, when defining academic culture in our classrooms or institutions, it is important to note the wide spectrum of individuals and organizations that influence that culture, its needs, and its expectations.

The next step for a teacher or administrator would be to determine the specific aspects of their institution’s culture. This could be done by deciding what products, practices, and perspectives are used and expected (see Table 1 below). Products in a classroom may be simple things like paper, writing utensils, backpacks, and textbooks. For each product there must be a practice and a perspective attached. The paper and writing utensils are used to write essays. Backpacks reflect the important perspective of preparation. At some schools, where students struggle to come to class prepared, this would be an essential aspect of academic culture to teach and reinforce. At other institutions it may not be an issue. What matters is that educators determine which products, practices, or perspectives students struggle with and teach to help them overcome that culture shock.

Table 1: Example of Academic Products, Practices and Perspectives

Tools	Created Products	Practices	Perspectives
Writing utensils; pen, pencil, eraser	Essays	The Writing Process	Academic Integrity
Paper	Articles	Collaboration and Peer Review	Search for New Knowledge
Text	Data	Preparation and Research	Scientific Method
ICT	Presentation Materials	Giving Presentations	Avoiding Bias

Once we’ve determined which aspects of academic culture students are struggling with, we need to decide how to teach them to understand and enter that aspect of culture. According to Ortuño (1994), we can capture student interest and connect culture and language by incorporating “visually engaging , authentic materials” (p. 500). Traditionally used authentic materials may include literature, video, and pictures or slides. These materials may be authentic, that is, specifically designed for academic purposes, such as actual journal articles or textbooks. Others may be considered educational, designed to teach a specific academic practice or perspective. It is important to note that non-academic media, or media that is produced to entertain, can also have value as it may touch upon academic products, practices, and perspectives.

For example, academic literature may consist of textbooks, essays, and articles. There are certainly some classics that be called big “C” academic culture, such as Euclid’s Elements, Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, or more modern classics such as Einstein’s Does the Inertia of a Body Depend upon its Energy Content? (where he first put forth the formula E = mc²), or Labov’s The Social Stratification of English in New York City. Admittedly, most of these would be too difficult for English language learners, so it would be required to provide excerpts or adaptations. The advantage of teaching academic classes is that there is no better way to teach academic perspectives than to read some of the greatest academic thoughts ever produced. On the other hand, non-academic literature such as short stories, plays, poems, and novels can also be an entertaining way for students to learn about academic culture. Consider this short excerpt from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Act I, Scene 5 where Horatio and Hamlet discuss the recent visitation of the ghost of Hamlet’s father.

Horatio: O day and night, but this is wondrous strange!

Hamlet: And therefore as a stranger give it welcome. There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, than are dreamt of in your philosophy (Shakespeare, 1601).

It is worth noting that both Horatio and Hamlet are students in this play, and Hamlet’s line advocates academic perspectives such as critical thinking and searching for new knowledge.

Though video doesn’t have the rich repertoire of academic classics that literature does, some famous examples might include Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment, Elliot’s A Class Divided, or Milgram’s Obedience. Instructional videos are also very common, and many universities may produce videos in order to teach students about the culture of their institution (e.g., videos on how to take advantage of the library or student writing center). There are also a number of “edutainment” videos produced, particularly by the Discovery Channel, such as their program Mythbusters which uses the scientific method in entertaining ways. But even films produced by Hollywood may occasionally be used to teach academic culture. The popular film Twilight, for instance, features characters in class doing pair work (and admittedly, doing more talking than work). This short clip could be used to have students discuss correct and incorrect ways to conduct pair work.

Not surprisingly, there is a large variety of classic academic visuals and pictures as well. Examples include the periodic table, Bohr’s atomic model, the solar system, the seven bridges of Königsberg, or the game matrix from the Prisoner’s Dilemma. In addtion, charts are often used to teach an academic practice (such as the writing process below). Pictures are frequently used to visually represent vocabulary, and as such should be used to teach academic vocabulary and jargon. Finally, paintings and photography as art can also be used to teach academic products, practices, and perspectives. A fine example of this is Jose Clemente Orozco’s mural Gods of the Modern World, which illustrates the need for academics to search for new knowledge.

Chart 1: The Writing Process

Ultimately, teachers need to be aware of how culture is being defined in academia as a whole and in the classroom. From there, they can determine what products, practices, and perspectives their students are struggling with and teach them to properly enter academic culture. Teachers should then use a variety of media and materials, ranging from literature, video, and pictures and slides. In doing this, students should come out of class not just learning the language skills necessary to succeed in the university, but also the required cultural skills.

References

Atkinson, D. (1999). TESOL and culture. TESOL Quarterly, 33(4), 625-654.

Kramsch, C. (1993). Language study as border study: Experiencing difference. European Journal of Education, 28(3), 349-358.

Ortuño, M. M. (1994). Cross-cultural awareness in the foreign language class: The Kluckhohn model. The Modern Language Journal, 75(4), 449-459.

Shakespeare, W. (1601). The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. Retrieved from http://www.opensourceshakespeare.org/views/plays/play_view.php?WorkID=hamlet&Act=1&Scene=5&Scope=scene

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